Aquaculture: A comprehensive guide to its definition, history, types, systems, and importance

By: Milthon Lujan Monja and Angie Caruajulca

Aquaculture, also known as fish farming, is a fundamental economic activity crucial for the present and future of the global food supply. In a historic milestone, aquaculture surpassed capture fisheries in total aquatic food production for the first time in 2022 (FAO, 2024), solidifying its role as the primary source of aquatic protein for a growing global population.

By 2050, with the global population projected to exceed 9 billion, aquaculture will be indispensable for ensuring food security. Consequently, governments and organizations worldwide are implementing policies to foster its sustainable development, driving technological innovation, creating jobs, and improving access to nutritious food.

In this comprehensive guide, we will explore in depth what aquaculture is, its fascinating history, its classifications, its strategic importance, and the different production systems that make it possible. Whether you are just starting in this exciting field or simply seeking detailed information, here you will find a solid foundation of knowledge, supplemented with references for further exploration.

Key takeaways

• Production leadership: Aquaculture is now the world’s leading source of aquatic food, surpassing capture fisheries—a role that will become even more critical for feeding the future population.
• System diversity: The industry encompasses a wide range of systems, from traditional extensive methods to cutting-edge technologies like Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) and Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), adapting to various geographical and economic contexts.
• An Engine for development: Beyond being a food source, aquaculture is an economic pillar that generates employment and fosters development in communities worldwide.
• Sustainability as a priority: The future of aquaculture hinges on its ability to innovate and operate sustainably, minimizing its environmental impact and ensuring ecosystem health.
• Key Distinction from fisheries: Aquaculture is an active “farming” process involving human intervention, not merely the “extraction” of wild resources like fishing.

Aquaculture: Definition and key concepts

Aquaculture is defined as the farming of aquatic organisms—such as fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants—under controlled or semi-controlled conditions. Troll et al. (2017) note that aquaculture typically involves confining a species within a secure system under conditions where it can thrive. They further state that it is an economic activity that utilizes and transforms natural aquatic resources into valuable products for society.

The primary distinction between aquaculture and fisheries lies in the active human intervention in the rearing process (e.g., stocking, feeding, and protection), whereas fishing is the harvesting of wild species from their natural habitats.

The scope of aquaculture extends beyond food production to include the restocking of endangered species, the production of raw materials for industries (such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics), the cultivation of ornamental fish, and scientific research.

History of Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the ancient art of farming aquatic organisms, has ancestral and simultaneous origins across the globe. While anthropological studies, such as those by Costa-Pierce (2022), delve into its deep historical roots, it was not until the 20th century that the practice solidified into the powerful economic activity it is today.

Ancestral origins: The first traces

The roots of aquaculture run deeper than previously believed. Recent research suggests that the “First Blue Revolution” may have begun 8,000 years ago in China (Rogers, 2023). Other studies support this antiquity, with evidence of carp farming in the same region dating back to 6200 BC (Nakajima et al., 2019). Around the same period, signs of eel farming dating back 6,600 years have been discovered in Australia.

These early practices involved ingenious techniques, such as enclosing wild aquatic animals in lakes, ponds, or coastal areas to ensure a steady supply of food.

Expansion and sophistication in the Ancient World

Various civilizations adopted and refined aquaculture. In ancient Egypt, paintings from Thebes dating to 1500 BC already depicted advanced control over the breeding of Nile tilapia in irrigation ponds. This knowledge was formalized in 475 BC when the Chinese scholar Fan Li wrote the first known treatise on aquaculture, detailing carp farming. The practice was not exclusive to Asia and Africa; civilizations such as the Japanese, Greeks, and Romans also mastered oyster farming.

Modern aquaculture: From tradition to a global industry

The great leap toward modernity occurred in the 17th century with the development of artificial reproduction in hatcheries, a cornerstone technique today. However, the industry’s true boom arrived in the 1960s. A growing awareness that capture fisheries were insufficient to meet global protein demand spurred a wave of innovation. It was during this era that the use of marine cages for intensive salmon farming became widespread, transforming aquaculture into one of the world’s most important food industries.

Today, aquaculture production is led by giants such as China, India, Indonesia, and Vietnam, with Chile and Ecuador emerging as major players in Latin America. As Van (2021) describes, although Asian aquaculture has a thousand-year history that began in inland fish farms, its evolution has led it to successfully expand into brackish and marine ecosystems across the globe.

Differences Between Ancient and Modern Aquaculture

Rogers’ (2023) research provides a detailed look at the evolution of aquaculture; based on this information, we can compare it with modern aquaculture:

In recent decades, alongside scientific and technological advances, aquaculture has continued to evolve, incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as genetics, artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, aquaponics, and recirculating aquaculture systems.

What is the importance of aquaculture?

A nutritional powerhouse: Proteins and essential nutrients

Aquaculture is a cornerstone of global nutrition. Farmed fish and seafood are rich in high-quality proteins and essential amino acids, which are crucial for human health and development. Furthermore, they are a pillar of a balanced diet due to their high content of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. This contribution is vital for combating malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, proving to be a key solution, especially in developing regions.

A global impact in figures

The significance of aquaculture is reflected in compelling data. Today, it accounts for over 50% of the fish and seafood consumed worldwide.

• Production Leader: According to the FAO’s SOFIA 2024 report, aquaculture production for human consumption reached 131 million tons in 2022.
• A Staple on Our Plates: Out of a per capita consumption of 20.5 kg in 2019, aquaculture supplied 11.2 kg, solidifying its position as the primary provider of seafood for people (Globefish).

Beyond food: An engine for innovation and sustainability

Aquaculture’s contribution extends far beyond nutrition. The sector is also a driver of development in several strategic areas:

• Pharmaceutical and Food Industries: It generates high-value bioactive compounds, such as fatty acids, collagen, and vitamins.
• Clean Energy: It drives the research and production of biofuels.
• Environmental Conservation: It supports the recovery of wild species through restocking programs.
• Sustainability: It develops solutions for wastewater treatment.
• Knowledge: It serves as a platform for education and scientific research.

Environmental protection and sustainable synergies

Aquaculture is a key ally for the health of our oceans. By providing a sustainable and controlled source of seafood, it significantly reduces pressure on wild fish populations, many of which are overexploited. This approach helps conserve biodiversity and protect delicate marine ecosystems for future generations.

Furthermore, modern aquaculture has evolved into a model of the circular economy, intelligently integrating with other productive activities. This synergy not only optimizes resources but also creates added value:

• Aquaponics: Wastewater from farming is reused for irrigating and fertilizing vegetables, creating a highly efficient symbiotic system.
• Organic Fertilizers: Nutrient-rich sludge from ponds is transformed into high-quality compost for agriculture.
• Bio-utilization: Processing waste converts it into new sources of protein and bioactive compounds for various industries.

An engine for economic and social development

Aquaculture is a powerful catalyst for economic growth, particularly in rural and coastal communities. Its development generates quality employment throughout the entire value chain, from breeding and farming to processing and distribution. By fostering economic diversification and providing stable livelihoods, this industry directly contributes to poverty reduction and strengthens the social fabric for millions of people worldwide

Challenges of Aquaculture

According to Zhang et al. (2024), aquaculture is a significant contributor to food security with a lower emissions profile than much of the terrestrial livestock industry. However, its rapid growth demands continuous improvements in feed efficiency, appropriate species selection, optimization of farming systems, and effective management to minimize its carbon footprint. It is also crucial to address the complexities of GHG (Greenhouse Gas) emissions, especially those not related to CO₂.

Below, we describe the main challenges facing the aquaculture industry.

Environmental impact: A focus on sustainability

Environmental management is a pillar for the future of aquaculture. Interest in sustainable practices has grown exponentially, a trend reflected in the increasing number of scientific publications on the topic (Tucciarone et al., 2024). The main challenges include:

• Toward a Circular Economy: Nutrient pollution or escapes can harm ecosystems. To counteract this, Chary et al. (2023) identified six priorities to make aquaculture more circular:
  1. Increase the production and demand for the most essential species.
  2. Decrease food loss and waste.
  3. Support nutrient recycling practices at multiple scales.
  4. Adapt aquafeed formulations.
  5. Inform consumers about the benefits of low-trophic-level species.
  6. Address urgent research gaps.
• Disease Management and Antibiotic Use: Disease outbreaks pose a risk to both farmed and wild species. Naylor et al. (2023) emphasize the importance of implementing policies to address disease pressures and the misuse of antimicrobials. To reduce antibiotic use, Bondad-Reantaso et al. (2023) highlight viable alternatives such as vaccination, bacteriophages, probiotics, prebiotics, and medicinal plant derivatives.
• Carbon Footprint and Habitat: The expansion of aquaculture can impact local habitats, a risk that must be managed with careful planning. Regarding emissions, these largely stem from feed production (70%) and energy consumption. Farmed bivalves and seaweeds generate the lowest emissions, at approximately 0.7 t CO₂eq/t (Zhang et al., 2024).

Reducing dependency on fishmeal and fish oil

Fishmeal and fish oil remain key inputs in aquafeeds, creating a dependency on capture fisheries. Although significant reductions in inclusion rates have been achieved in recent decades through research into alternative (terrestrial and marine) ingredients, completely eliminating this dependency remains a crucial challenge for the industry.

Social considerations: Fair practices and community engagement

Sustainable development must be ethical and socially responsible. This involves ensuring fair wages, safe working conditions, and access to basic services for workers. Furthermore, the future growth of aquaculture fundamentally depends on a better understanding of and response to diverse social perceptions (Budhathoki et al., 2024).

In this regard, Brugere et al. (2023) propose “humanizing” the sector’s development through a renewed relationship based on equality, valuing interdisciplinary knowledge, and implemented through inclusive business models and fair governance mechanisms to overcome inequalities.

Economic viability: Ensuring profitability and market access

Long-term sustainability depends on economic viability. Aquaculture businesses must be profitable while ensuring fair prices for both producers and consumers. Efficient access to markets and value chains is essential for products to reach the end consumer and generate stable income.

Developing policies to promote aquaculture

Aquaculture is often underrepresented in the food policies of many countries. Naylor et al. (2023) highlight that government policies decisively influence the sector’s growth, technologies, and practices. They recommend finding a balance in support policies for small-scale farms, SMEs, and large commercial enterprises, especially in low-income countries.

Disruptive Technologies Transforming Aquaculture

Technological advancements are changing the way aquaculture is conducted. The Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) are paving the way for Aquaculture 4.0. Additionally, advances in genetics are facilitating genetic selection and selective breeding.

Yue and Shen (2022) report that novel and disruptive technologies, including genome editing, artificial intelligence, offshore aquaculture, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), alternative proteins and oils to replace fishmeal and fish oil, oral vaccination, blockchain for marketing, and the Internet of Things, can provide solutions for sustainable and profitable aquaculture.

Types of Aquaculture

Aquaculture can be classified into various production systems depending on the species raised, environmental characteristics, types of facilities, levels of intensification, among other factors (Van, 2021). Additionally, Mizuta et al. (2023) highlight four approaches to aquaculture in scientific literature: “commercial aquaculture,” “conservation aquaculture,” “restorative aquaculture,” and “regenerative aquaculture.”

Given the great diversity of operations, a single classification of aquaculture can be complex and confusing. Based on these considerations, a basic classification according to different characteristics of the activity is presented below:

By the environment in which it is practiced

Marine Aquaculture or Mariculture

Marine aquaculture refers to the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of aquatic plants and animals (primarily oysters, clams, mussels, shrimp, salmon, and other marine fish) in water with a salinity of more than 30 practical salinity units (PSU).

It is practiced in the ocean or on land in tanks and ponds. Notable species include scallops, oysters, mussels, cobia, and salmon (for fattening), as well as macroalgae, among others.

Freshwater Aquaculture

This is practiced in inland environments using freshwater. Freshwater is defined as water with less than 0.5 PSU.

Freshwater aquaculture refers to the breeding and rearing of aquatic animals (fish, freshwater shrimp, crabs, bivalves, etc.) and native plants using ponds, reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and other inland water bodies (Anh and Van, 2021).

Brackish Water Aquaculture

Technically, brackish water is a mixture of freshwater and seawater that usually occurs in coastal areas and typically has a salinity between 0.5 and 30 PSU.

A characteristic of many surface brackish waters is that their salinity can vary significantly in space and time.

By the level of intensity or production systems

Extensive System

Conducted in ponds where fish feed on the primary production of the water body, which is enhanced by fertilization. These systems have low stocking densities, for example, 1 fish/m², and their yields are less than 500 kilograms per hectare.

Semi-intensive System

Conducted in constructed ponds that are fertilized (organically or chemically) and where animals are given supplementary balanced feed. The density ranges between 1 and 5 fish/m². Aeration is sometimes used, covering about 10 to 15% of the pond area.

Intensive System

Conducted in ponds, cages, raceways, or tanks with constant monitoring of water quality, feeding, and production. Aeration is typically used in at least 50% of the pond area. Feeding depends solely on artificial diets. The density ranges between 5 to 20 fish/m², depending on water exchange and aeration provided to the pond.

Super-intensive or Hyper-intensive System

Primarily conducted in tanks, under strict control of all factors, mainly water quality, aeration, and feeding. The stocking density is over 20 fish/m²; however, the peak production density achieved depends on the ability to maintain good water quality conditions for the cultured organisms.

By Number of Species

Monoculture

A single species is cultivated. For example, tilapia or trout farming.

Polyculture

Two or more species are cultivated in the same pond or system. The most important consideration in polyculture is the potential to increase fish production by better utilizing natural food or the area of the cultivation systems. For example, tilapia and shrimp farming, where tilapia inhabit the water column and shrimp live on the pond bottom.

Integrated Cultures

Organic waste from the cultivation of other animals, like ducks or pigs, is used to produce microalgae, which in turn feed the fish. Integrated cultures have advanced to concepts like rice-fish farming, biofloc technology, aquaponics, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), and aquamimicry.

By Type of Species

Some researchers prefer to classify aquaculture by the species being cultivated:

Pisciculture

A term often used synonymously with aquaculture; however, pisciculture specifically refers to the farming of fish in pools (ponds) or nurseries.

Shrimp Farming or Carciniculture

Refers to the farming of marine or freshwater shrimp. Shrimp farming is one of the world’s most important activities, with major species being the Pacific white shrimp and the black tiger shrimp.

Salmoniculture

Refers to the farming of salmon. This practice began in European countries and later spread to the Americas. Norway, Chile, and Scotland are currently the main producers of farmed salmon.

Tilapia Farming

Refers to the cultivation of tilapia. Tilapia is one of the primary species farmed in tropical and subtropical climates due to its hardiness and rapid growth, gaining preference among many fish farmers worldwide.

Frog Farming

Though less widespread, frog farming, primarily of the bullfrog, is practiced in countries like Mexico and Brazil.

Mollusk Farming

Includes the cultivation of mollusks such as scallops, oysters, and mussels.

Algae Farming

Refers to the cultivation of macroalgae.

By Level of Water Exchange

Static Systems

Traditionally, extensive ponds where water is exchanged only to supplement evaporated water during the cultivation period.

Open Systems

Uses the environment as fish farms, for example, cages. The cultivated organisms are confined or protected, with no artificial water circulation within the system. The water flow and quality are maintained by natural currents (lakes or oceans).

The production systems in this category rely entirely on natural ecological processes.

Semi-closed Systems

Semi-closed production methods include ponds and raceways. Within the production units, the aquaculturist can add or remove water.

In semi-closed systems, water comes from natural sources such as rain, streams, brooks, or rivers.

Closed or Recirculating Systems

Characterized by minimal contact with the environment and the original water source. These systems have minimal water exchange during the production cycle.

In closed systems, water is reused in an artificial cultivation system, and the water temperature can be maintained close to the optimal growth temperature for the cultured animal.

Water in closed systems can reduce pathogens through continuous disinfection with ultraviolet (UV) lamps or ozone.

Classification Based on Seed Origin

A recent publication by Froehlich et al., (2023) has classified aquaculture operations according to seed origin: capture-based aquaculture or domesticated aquaculture.

Capture-based Aquaculture

This type of aquaculture relies on the use of wild seed.

Domesticated Aquaculture

Seed originates from hatcheries.

Types of Aquaculture Structures

The main structures employed by aquaculturists include ponds, raceways, concrete, fiberglass, or geomembrane tanks, floating cages, rafts, and enclosures (hapas). The choice of structure depends on your business plan for implementing fish farms.

Semi-natural or Earthen Ponds

Semi-natural or earthen ponds can have any shape and are typically less than 2 meters deep. These structures can be used for spawning fish, raising fry, and growing fish to market size.

Earthen pond systems tend to be less intensive due to fewer technical requirements. Additionally, there is limited control over environmental factors, especially physical characteristics like temperature.

Raceways

Raceways are typically linear channels arranged in series. High-quality water continuously flows through these culture units.

Due to the high water flow rates, raceways are constructed from concrete.

Unlike earthen ponds, fish stocking densities in raceways are high, and there is no natural food available.

Concrete, Fiberglass, or Geomembrane Tanks

Tanks are typically round, oval, or rectangular. Water inflow is designed to move water towards the center of the tank where the drain is located, aiding in tank self-cleaning.

Round tanks are usually 4 meters in diameter with a depth of approximately 1 meter.

Stocking densities depend on water flow and aeration. In tanks where water is changed every 1-2 hours, stocking densities range from approximately 25-50 kg/m3 up to 150 kg/m3 with aeration.

Floating Cages

Cages are floating structures traditionally constructed from wood. Cages come in various shapes (circular, square, or rectangular) and sizes depending on their design, purpose, and location.

Floating cages are primarily used for growing fish to market size.

A comprehensive description of each type of structure will be developed in the upcoming posts; however, a quick internet search will provide you with manuals on species cultivation such as trout, tilapia, carp, ornamental fish, bivalve mollusks, among others, which will help you learn about the design and management of these aquaculture structures.

How to start an aquaculture business?

The success of cultivating any species in aquaculture depends, at least in part, on the level of domestication (Teletchea & Fontaine, 2014). Therefore, to get started, you need to know if the species of your interest has a closed life cycle, meaning its breeding parameters, reproduction, nutrition, among other aspects, are well understood.

Aquaculture is a business, so the first thing to analyze is whether there is a current or potential market for the species you are interested in cultivating. Understanding these data will help determine which varieties of fish or seafood are consumed, how much to produce, and at what prices to market them—key starting points for designing any farm. Some time ago, we published a very basic article on aquaculture entrepreneurship (Spanish) that may give you an initial idea of what aquaculture is from a business perspective. The main points to consider are:

1. Identify a market
2. Learn about the species to be cultivated
3. Understand the current legal framework
4. Develop a business plan

Simple Methods for Fish Farming

Now that you have basic knowledge about aquaculture, you may want to delve into topics such as water quality, pond construction, fish farm management, among other issues related to the proper management of a fish farm or aquaculture facility. In this regard, you can download the FAO collection on “Simple Methods for Aquaculture“.

Conclusion

Aquaculture is crucial for protein supply and has been the fastest-growing food production sector for over two decades. Since 2022, the aquaculture industry has become the primary source of fish and seafood supply, surpassing fishing, and this trend will continue in the coming years.

On the other hand, technological advancements are shaping a new aquaculture industry. While some technologies are already approved for limited use, there is a significant gap between their potential application and real-world implementation. Moreover, integrating these diverse technologies requires standardized equipment, optimized designs, and connection to an Internet of Things (IoT) platform for effective monitoring and control.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is pisciculture, and how does it differ from aquaculture?

Pisciculture is the branch of aquaculture that specializes exclusively in fish farming. Therefore, all pisciculture is aquaculture, but not all aquaculture is pisciculture, as the latter also includes the farming of shellfish, seaweed, and other organisms.

What are the most cultivated species in global aquaculture?

Globally, freshwater species like carp and tilapia dominate in terms of volume. In terms of value, Atlantic salmon and Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) are market leaders. Mollusks such as oysters and mussels are also prominent.

Is aquaculture good or bad for the environment?

Like any production activity, its impact depends on how it is managed. When best practices, clean technologies, and strict regulations are applied, aquaculture can be one of the most sustainable ways to produce animal protein. However, poor management can cause environmental problems. The global trend is toward greater sustainability.

What is an extensive farming system in aquaculture?

It is a production method using low densities of organisms in large bodies of water. Feeding relies on the natural productivity of the ecosystem with minimal human and technological intervention, resulting in low costs but also low yields.

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Milthon Lujan

Editor at the digital magazine AquaHoy. He holds a degree in Aquaculture Biology from the National University of Santa (UNS) and a Master’s degree in Science and Innovation Management from the Polytechnic University of Valencia, with postgraduate diplomas in Business Innovation and Innovation Management. He possesses extensive experience in the aquaculture and fisheries sector, having led the Fisheries Innovation Unit of the National Program for Innovation in Fisheries and Aquaculture (PNIPA). He has served as a senior consultant in technology watch, an innovation project formulator and advisor, and a lecturer at UNS. He is a member of the Peruvian College of Biologists and was recognized by the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) in 2016 for his contribution to aquaculture.