Aquaculture: definition, history, importance and types

By: Milthon Lujan Monja and Angie Caruajulca

Aquaculture is an economic activity that in 2022 has surpassed fishing in the production of aquatic food (FAO, 2024) and is set to become the main source of animal protein provision by 2050 when the world’s population exceeds 9 billion people. In this regard, many countries are implementing policies to promote this activity to ensure food availability and job creation.

In this post, we want to share some definitions, history, classification, and the importance of aquaculture for those who are looking for information or starting out in this exciting activity. This is just a brief introduction to the world of aquaculture; however, at the end of the post, we include a series of bibliographic references that can help delve deeper into various topics and allow you to build a small library with aquaculture books.

What is aquaculture?

The terms “aquaculture” can be used interchangeably; while in some countries like Mexico and Ecuador, the word aquafarming is commonly used, in other Latin American countries, the use of aquaculture is common. Likewise, it is also often referred to as “fish farming” or “aquatic agriculture”. In any case, this post does not aim to initiate a discussion on which term is correct; we can use both words as synonyms.

There are many definitions of aquaculture; however, they all agree that: “Aquaculture is defined as the cultivation of aquatic plant organisms (algae, aquatic plants, etc.) and aquatic animal organisms (fish, crustaceans, mollusks, etc.) in natural environments (sea, river, lake, lagoon) or artificial environments (ponds, tanks), with marine, brackish, or freshwater, for the purposes of food, obtaining bioactive compounds, biofuels, conservation, or recreation.”

Troll et al. (2017) highlight that aquaculture typically involves confining a species in a secure system under conditions in which it can thrive, and indicate that aquaculture is an economic activity that uses and transforms natural aquatic resources into valuable products for society.

In this regard, it is important to note that currently, aquaculture is not only aimed at food production but also at obtaining bioactive compounds (anticarcinogens, essential fatty acids, proteins, etc.) through the cultivation of macroalgae, sea cucumbers, or biofuels through the cultivation of microalgae.

History of Aquaculture

It appears that aquaculture emerged simultaneously in many parts of the world. The study by Costa-Pierce (2022) presents a detailed analysis from an anthropological perspective on aquaculture. However, it was only in the 20th century that aquaculture emerged as an important economic activity.

Beginnings of Aquaculture

On the other hand, recent discoveries in Australia seem to indicate that the first aquaculture experiences date back 6,600 years with eel farming; likewise, other research found evidence of carp aquaculture in China in 6200 BC (Nakajima et al., 2019). However, the recent publication by Rogers (2023) reports that the First Blue Revolution began 8,000 years ago in China. In 475 BC, Fan Lei wrote the first Aquaculture Treaty where he explained carp farming.

Early Aquaculture Practices

The first evidence of some kind of control over the reproduction of Nile tilapia in captivity in irrigation ponds comes from paintings dating back to 1500 BC, found in Theban in Egypt. Likewise, the first evidence of aquaculture practices took place in Asia in 1000 BC due to the desires of an emperor to have a constant supply of his favorite fish.

The initial forms of aquaculture practiced involved confining wild aquatic animals in lakes, ponds, or small coastal lakes; there is evidence that tilapia was already being farmed in Egypt, and that Japanese, Greeks, and Romans farmed oysters.

It was not until the 17th century that artificial breeding began through hatcheries, a practice that is very widespread today. In the 1960s, aquaculture gained greater prominence with the realization that fishing would not guarantee future protein supply, and the use of sea cages for salmon farming, a practice that is one of the most important in the world, grew.

Currently, the countries leading global aquaculture production include China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Egypt, Norway, Chile, and Ecuador. Van (2021) describes that aquaculture has a long history in Asia, with the first fish farms starting on the continent, later moving to areas with brackish waters.

Differences Between Ancient and Modern Aquaculture

Rogers’ (2023) research provides a detailed look at the evolution of aquaculture; based on this information, we can compare it with modern aquaculture:

In recent decades, alongside scientific and technological advances, aquaculture has continued to evolve, incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as genetics, artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, aquaponics, and recirculating aquaculture systems.

What is the importance of aquaculture?

Nutritional Powerhouse: Proteins and Essential Nutrients

Aquaculture is an important source of proteins, providing essential amino acids that are crucial for human health and development. Fish and other aquatic products are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, making them a valuable addition to a balanced diet. Aquaculture helps alleviate malnutrition and improve micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in developing regions.

According to statistics published in the FAO’s SOFIA 2024 report, fish and seafood production by fishing and aquaculture in 2022 reached 223 million tons, of which around 131 million tons come from aquaculture and are used for food.

What is the importance of aquaculture?

Nutritional Powerhouse: Proteins and Essential Nutrients

Aquaculture is a significant source of proteins, providing essential amino acids crucial for human health and development. Fish and other aquatic products are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, making them a valuable addition to a balanced diet. Aquaculture helps alleviate malnutrition and improve micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in developing regions.

According to statistics published in the FAO’s SOFIA 2024 report, fish and seafood production by fishing and aquaculture in 2022 reached 223 million tons, of which around 131 million tons come from aquaculture and are used for food.

It is also important to highlight the contribution of aquaculture to the apparent per capita consumption of fish and seafood in 2019. According to Globefish, the apparent per capita consumption in 2019 was 20.5 kilograms, of which aquaculture accounts for 11.2 kilograms; in this regard, aquaculture is responsible for more than 50% of the fish and seafood we consume.

Bioactive Compounds and Beyond

Aquaculture not only provides food but also plays an important role in producing bioactive compounds (fatty acids, proteins, vitamins, etc.) for the food and pharmaceutical industries, biofuel production, the recovery of wild species (restocking), education, wastewater treatment, among others.

Environmental Management

Aquaculture plays a crucial role in reducing pressure on overexploited wild fisheries. By providing a sustainable alternative source of seafood, aquaculture helps conserve marine ecosystems and protect biodiversity. As global demand for seafood continues to rise, aquaculture is poised to play an even more significant role in meeting this demand without compromising the health of wild fish populations.

In this new context, we can no longer view aquaculture solely as a food production activity but as an opportunity to produce a range of substances that can be integrated with other economic activities like agriculture.

Some examples of integration with other economic activities include using effluents from cultivation tanks for irrigation or vegetable cultivation (aquaponics), using sludge from aquaculture ponds as fertilizers, and using waste from processing aquatic species as new sources of proteins or compounds, among others.

Economic Driver: Boosting Rural Economies and Creating Jobs

Aquaculture is a powerful economic driver, especially in rural and coastal areas. The industry generates job opportunities, promotes economic diversification, and contributes to poverty reduction. Activities related to aquaculture, such as breeding, processing, and distributing fish, provide livelihoods for millions of people worldwide.

Challenges of Aquaculture

Environmental Impact: Addressing Pollution, Diseases, and Habitat Loss

Aquaculture, like any human activity, is not without environmental challenges. Pollution caused by aquaculture operations, such as nutrient runoff and escaping fish, can affect water quality and harm ecosystems. Chary et al. (2023) identified six priorities that could make aquaculture more circular:

• Increasing production and demand for the most essential species,
• Reducing food loss and waste at farm and post-harvest stages,
• Supporting nutrient recycling practices on multiple scales,
• Adapting aquaculture feed formulations,
• Informing consumers about the benefits of low-trophic level species and other environmentally friendly aquatic foods, and
• Addressing urgent research gaps.

On the other hand, disease outbreaks in aquaculture facilities can pose risks to both farmed and wild populations. Naylor et al. (2023) highlight the importance of addressing aquaculture disease pressures and the misuse of antimicrobials in many parts of the world through policy implementation. Meanwhile, Bondad-Reantaso et al. (2023) suggest exploring viable alternatives to reduce antibiotic use, such as vaccination, bacteriophages, quorum sensing inhibition, probiotics and prebiotics, chicken egg yolk antibodies, and medicinal plant derivatives.

Additionally, habitat loss due to aquaculture expansion can have detrimental effects on biodiversity.

Reducing Dependence on Fishmeal and Fish Oil

Fishmeal and fish oil are essential inputs in aquaculture diets, creating a dependency of the aquaculture industry on fishing. Significant efforts have been made in recent decades to find alternative terrestrial and marine inputs, reducing the inclusion rates of fishmeal and fish oil; however, this dependency has not been eliminated.

Social Considerations: Promoting Fair Labor Practices and Community Engagement

Aquaculture must adhere to ethical and social standards to ensure fair labor practices, promote community engagement, and respect local cultures and traditions. Ensuring fair wages, safe working conditions, and access to education and healthcare for aquaculture workers is essential. Engaging with local communities and addressing their concerns is crucial for the sustainable development of aquaculture.

Brugere et al. (2023) propose a renewed human relationship with aquaculture based on recognizing substantive equality and agency, embracing intersectionality— the multiple social dimensions of identity and interaction—and valuing interdisciplinary knowledge systems. This would be implemented through new and inclusive business models, social provision approaches, and procedural justice and governance mechanisms to overcome inequalities.

Economic Viability: Ensuring Profitability and Market Access

The economic viability of aquaculture is essential for its long-term sustainability. Aquaculture businesses must operate profitably while ensuring fair prices for producers and consumers. Access to markets and value chains is critical for aquaculture products to reach consumers and generate income for producers.

Development of Aquaculture Promotion Policies

Naylor et al. (2023) highlight that aquaculture is underrepresented in food policy and food systems debates in many countries; despite government policies significantly influencing aquaculture growth, species types, technologies, and management practices. Researchers recommend finding a balance between policies for small farms, SMEs, and large commercial farms, especially in low-income countries.

Disruptive Technologies Transforming Aquaculture

Technological advancements are changing the way aquaculture is conducted. The Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) are paving the way for Aquaculture 4.0. Additionally, advances in genetics are facilitating genetic selection and selective breeding.

Yue and Shen (2022) report that novel and disruptive technologies, including genome editing, artificial intelligence, offshore aquaculture, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), alternative proteins and oils to replace fishmeal and fish oil, oral vaccination, blockchain for marketing, and the Internet of Things, can provide solutions for sustainable and profitable aquaculture.

Types of Aquaculture

Aquaculture can be classified into various production systems depending on the species raised, environmental characteristics, types of facilities, levels of intensification, among other factors (Van, 2021). Additionally, Mizuta et al. (2023) highlight four approaches to aquaculture in scientific literature: “commercial aquaculture,” “conservation aquaculture,” “restorative aquaculture,” and “regenerative aquaculture.”

Given the great diversity of operations, a single classification of aquaculture can be complex and confusing. Based on these considerations, a basic classification according to different characteristics of the activity is presented below:

By the environment in which it is practiced

Marine Aquaculture or Mariculture

Marine aquaculture refers to the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of aquatic plants and animals (primarily oysters, clams, mussels, shrimp, salmon, and other marine fish) in water with a salinity of more than 30 practical salinity units (PSU).

It is practiced in the ocean or on land in tanks and ponds. Notable species include scallops, oysters, mussels, cobia, and salmon (for fattening), as well as macroalgae, among others.

Freshwater Aquaculture

This is practiced in inland environments using freshwater. Freshwater is defined as water with less than 0.5 PSU.

Freshwater aquaculture refers to the breeding and rearing of aquatic animals (fish, freshwater shrimp, crabs, bivalves, etc.) and native plants using ponds, reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and other inland water bodies (Anh and Van, 2021).

Brackish Water Aquaculture

Technically, brackish water is a mixture of freshwater and seawater that usually occurs in coastal areas and typically has a salinity between 0.5 and 30 PSU.

A characteristic of many surface brackish waters is that their salinity can vary significantly in space and time.

By the level of intensity or production systems

Extensive System

Conducted in ponds where fish feed on the primary production of the water body, which is enhanced by fertilization. These systems have low stocking densities, for example, 1 fish/m², and their yields are less than 500 kilograms per hectare.

Semi-intensive System

Conducted in constructed ponds that are fertilized (organically or chemically) and where animals are given supplementary balanced feed. The density ranges between 1 and 5 fish/m². Aeration is sometimes used, covering about 10 to 15% of the pond area.

Intensive System

Conducted in ponds, cages, raceways, or tanks with constant monitoring of water quality, feeding, and production. Aeration is typically used in at least 50% of the pond area. Feeding depends solely on artificial diets. The density ranges between 5 to 20 fish/m², depending on water exchange and aeration provided to the pond.

Super-intensive or Hyper-intensive System

Primarily conducted in tanks, under strict control of all factors, mainly water quality, aeration, and feeding. The stocking density is over 20 fish/m²; however, the peak production density achieved depends on the ability to maintain good water quality conditions for the cultured organisms.

By Number of Species

Monoculture

A single species is cultivated. For example, tilapia or trout farming.

Polyculture

Two or more species are cultivated in the same pond or system. The most important consideration in polyculture is the potential to increase fish production by better utilizing natural food or the area of the cultivation systems. For example, tilapia and shrimp farming, where tilapia inhabit the water column and shrimp live on the pond bottom.

Integrated Cultures

Organic waste from the cultivation of other animals like ducks or pigs is used to produce microalgae, which in turn feed the fish. Integrated cultures have advanced to concepts like rice-fish farming, biofloc technology, aquaponics, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), and aquamimicry.

By Type of Species

Some researchers prefer to classify aquaculture by the species being cultivated:

Pisciculture

A term often used synonymously with aquaculture; however, pisciculture specifically refers to the farming of fish in pools (ponds) or nurseries.

Shrimp Farming or Carciniculture

Refers to the farming of marine or freshwater shrimp. Shrimp farming is one of the world’s most important activities, with major species being the Pacific white shrimp and the black tiger shrimp.

Salmoniculture

Refers to the farming of salmon. This practice began in European countries and later spread to the Americas. Norway, Chile, and Scotland are currently the main producers of farmed salmon.

Tilapia Farming

Refers to the cultivation of tilapia. Tilapia is one of the primary species farmed in tropical and subtropical climates due to its hardiness and rapid growth, gaining preference among many fish farmers worldwide.

Frog Farming

Though less widespread, frog farming, primarily of the bullfrog, is practiced in countries like Mexico and Brazil.

Mollusk Farming

Includes the cultivation of mollusks such as scallops, oysters, and mussels.

Algae Farming

Refers to the cultivation of macroalgae.

By Level of Water Exchange

Static Systems

Traditionally, extensive ponds where water is exchanged only to supplement evaporated water during the cultivation period.

Open Systems

Uses the environment as fish farms, for example, cages. The cultivated organisms are confined or protected, with no artificial water circulation within the system. The water flow and quality are maintained by natural currents (lakes or oceans).

The production systems in this category rely entirely on natural ecological processes.

Semi-closed Systems

Semi-closed production methods include ponds and raceways. Within the production units, the aquaculturist can add or remove water.

In semi-closed systems, water comes from natural sources such as rain, streams, brooks, or rivers.

Closed or Recirculating Systems

Characterized by minimal contact with the environment and the original water source. These systems have minimal water exchange during the production cycle.

In closed systems, water is reused in an artificial cultivation system, and the water temperature can be maintained close to the optimal growth temperature for the cultured animal.

Water in closed systems can reduce pathogens through continuous disinfection with ultraviolet (UV) lamps or ozone.

Classification Based on Seed Origin

A recent publication by Froehlich et al., (2023) has classified aquaculture operations according to seed origin: capture-based aquaculture or domesticated aquaculture.

Capture-based Aquaculture

This type of aquaculture relies on the use of wild seed.

Domesticated Aquaculture

Seed originates from hatcheries.

Types of Aquaculture Structures

The main structures employed by aquaculturists include ponds; raceways; concrete, fiberglass, or geomembrane tanks; floating cages; rafts; rafts; and enclosures (hapas). The choice of structure depends on your business plan for implementing fish farms.

Semi-natural or Earthen Ponds

Semi-natural or earthen ponds can have any shape and are typically less than 2 meters deep. These structures can be used for spawning fish, raising fry, and growing fish to market size.

Earthen pond systems tend to be less intensive due to fewer technical requirements. Additionally, there is limited control over environmental factors, especially physical characteristics like temperature.

Raceways

Raceways are typically linear channels arranged in series. High-quality water continuously flows through these culture units.

Due to the high water flow rates, raceways are constructed from concrete.

Unlike earthen ponds, fish stocking densities in raceways are high, and there is no natural food available.

Concrete, Fiberglass, or Geomembrane Tanks

Tanks are typically round, oval, or rectangular. Water inflow is designed to move water towards the center of the tank where the drain is located, aiding in tank self-cleaning.

Round tanks are usually 4 meters in diameter with a depth of approximately 1 meter.

Stocking densities depend on water flow and aeration. In tanks where water is changed every 1-2 hours, stocking densities range from approximately 25-50 kg/m3 up to 150 kg/m3 with aeration.

Floating Cages

Cages are floating structures traditionally constructed from wood. Cages come in various shapes (circular, square, or rectangular) and sizes depending on their design, purpose, and location.

Floating cages are primarily used for growing fish to market size.

A comprehensive description of each type of structure will be developed in the upcoming posts; however, a quick internet search will provide you with manuals on species cultivation such as trout, tilapia, carp, ornamental fish, bivalve mollusks, among others, which will help you learn about the design and management of these aquaculture structures.

How to start an aquaculture business?

The success of cultivating any species in aquaculture depends, at least in part, on the level of domestication (Teletchea & Fontaine, 2014). Therefore, to get started, you need to know if the species of your interest has a closed life cycle, meaning its breeding parameters, reproduction, nutrition, among other aspects, are well understood.

Aquaculture is a business, so the first thing to analyze is whether there is a current or potential market for the species you are interested in cultivating. Understanding these data will help determine which varieties of fish or seafood are consumed, how much to produce, and at what prices to market them—key starting points for designing any farm. Some time ago, we published a very basic article on aquaculture entrepreneurship (Spanish) that may give you an initial idea of what aquaculture is from a business perspective. The main points to consider are:

1. Identify a market
2. Learn about the species to be cultivated
3. Understand the current legal framework
4. Develop a business plan

Simple Methods for Fish Farming

Now that you have basic knowledge about aquaculture, you may want to delve into topics such as water quality, pond construction, fish farm management, among other issues related to the proper management of a fish farm or aquaculture facility. In this regard, you can download the FAO collection on “Simple Methods for Aquaculture“.

Conclusion

Aquaculture is crucial for protein supply and has been the fastest-growing food production sector for over two decades. Since 2022, the aquaculture industry has become the primary source of fish and seafood supply, surpassing fishing, and this trend will continue in the coming years.

On the other hand, technological advancements are shaping a new aquaculture industry. While some technologies are already approved for limited use, there is a significant gap between their potential application and real-world implementation. Moreover, integrating these diverse technologies requires standardized equipment, optimized designs, and connection to an Internet of Things (IoT) platform for effective monitoring and control.

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