Shrimp aquaculture, especially the farming of Pacific white shrimp or whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei or Penaeus vannamei), is one of the most dynamic aquaculture industries worldwide. However, as with other forms of aquaculture production, shrimp diseases are among the greatest challenges facing the industry. These diseases can have devastating consequences for shrimp health, reduce production, and affect farm profitability.
This article provides an analysis of the major diseases affecting marine shrimp, their causes, diagnosis, prevention, and control methods.
What Are the Main Shrimp Diseases?
Shrimp diseases are categorized based on their origin, including bacterial, viral, parasitic, fungal, and protozoan diseases. The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) has identified the following as notifiable aquatic animal diseases:
- Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND)
- Decapod Iridescent Virus 1 Infection (DIV1)
- Hepatobacter penaei (Necrotizing Hepatopancreatitis) Infection
- Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHHNV) Infection
- Infectious Myonecrosis Virus (IMNV) Infection
- Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) Infection
- White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) Infection
- Yellow Head Virus Genotype 1 (YHV1) Infection
Below, we describe some of the most common diseases affecting penaeid shrimp, particularly those prevalent in global shrimp farming.
Viral Diseases
White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV)
White Spot Syndrome Virus is one of the most lethal viral diseases in shrimp aquaculture. It is a double-stranded DNA virus with a rod- or ellipsoid-shaped morphology, belonging to the family Nimaviridae (Lee et al., 2022). It is characterized by the appearance of white spots on the exoskeleton of infected shrimp, which gives the disease its name. This disease can lead to high mortality rates in shrimp farms, especially under environmental stress conditions. Outbreaks often occur rapidly, and early diagnosis is key to preventing its spread.
According to Millard et al., (2021), several abiotic environmental conditions influence shrimp susceptibility to White Spot Disease (WSD):
- Temperature: WSSV is most virulent in water temperatures between 25 and 28°C. Elevated temperatures (>30°C) can protect against WSD, depending on the infection stage. The protective effect of high temperatures is influenced by the duration of exposure and the infection stage. For acute infections, exposure to 33°C for more than 6 hours delays mortality, while shorter periods can accelerate the disease. In chronic infections, increased temperatures may accelerate disease progression.
- Salinity: Penaeid shrimp are euryhaline, tolerating a wide range of salinity. The optimal salinity for P. vannamei is near its isoosmotic point (24.7 psu). Shrimp maintained in suboptimal salinities are more susceptible to WSD. At 25 psu (isoosmotic), shrimp demonstrate greater resistance to infection.
- Dissolved Oxygen (DO): DO levels should be maintained above 3.0 mg/L for shrimp farming, with at least 5.0 mg/L in intensive systems. Susceptibility to WSSV infection increases at DO levels of 2.06 mg/L.
- pH Levels: Elevated pH levels have been associated with WSSV outbreaks, particularly when combined with low temperatures. Studies showed higher cumulative mortality in shrimp injected with WSSV after exposure to alkaline pH stress.
Symptoms: Symptoms of WSD include white spots and reddening of the shrimp body. Infected shrimp lose appetite and gradually die. WSSV has a broad host range, affecting various aquatic crustaceans.
According to Lee et al. (2022), PCR is used for diagnosis, with nested PCR being more sensitive for detecting low-level infections. Biosecurity measures, such as using specific pathogen-free (SPF) broodstock and enhancing disease resistance, are effective management strategies, as no treatment is available for WSSV.
Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV)
Taura Syndrome (TSV) is caused by a single-stranded RNA virus, non-enveloped, with an icosahedral shape. It is transmitted through water and direct contact between shrimp or other crustaceans. Infected shrimp exhibit anorexia, lethargy, and erratic swimming behavior. They also display opacity in the tail musculature and a red tail due to the expansion of red chromatophores. Mortality during this phase can be very high. TSV primarily affects Penaeus vannamei and P. stylirostris.
Taura Syndrome is diagnosed through histological or molecular methods, such as PCR. Resistance to TSV can be achieved through selective breeding of TSV-resistant shrimp (SPR).
Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis (IHHNV)
Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis (IHHNV) causes deformities and stunted growth in shrimp. It is a single-stranded DNA virus, non-enveloped, with an icosahedral shape, and is the smallest virus affecting penaeid shrimp (Lee et al., 2022).
Infected shrimp show signs of swimming to the water surface, then becoming immobile and eventually sinking to the bottom of the pond. IHHNV can infect various shrimp species, including P. monodon, P. vannamei, and P. stylirostris. It is diagnosed through conventional PCR and real-time PCR. No effective treatment exists, so the best control method is the use of SPF shrimp.
Yellow Head Virus (YHV)
Yellow Head Virus (YHV) is highly infectious to most known species of farmed penaeid shrimp. Signs include an initial period of high food consumption, followed by an abrupt cessation of feeding and increased mortality. Shrimp may become lethargic and gather at the pond surface, exhibiting slow or erratic swimming behavior. The cephalothorax region may appear yellowish due to the pale yellow color of the hepatopancreas.
YHV is detected using RT-PCR and other molecular techniques. Disease control focuses on selecting SPF individuals, improving biosecurity, and water management.
Infectious Myonecrosis Virus (IMNV)
Infectious Myonecrosis Virus (IMNV) can cause mass mortality in shrimp. Shrimp in the acute phase of IMNV exhibit white necrotic areas in the muscles, particularly in the distal abdominal segments and tail. Severely affected shrimp become moribund, and mortality rates can be high. IMNV primarily affects L. vannamei, while P. stylirostris and P. monodon show greater resistance.
According to Lee et al. (2022), infection is diagnosed based on clinical symptoms, histopathological examination, and molecular techniques such as real-time RT-PCR.
Bacterial Diseases
Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND)
Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) is caused by virulent strains of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and other Vibrio species such as V. campbellii, V. harveyi, V. owensii, and V. punensis. AHPND induces necrosis in the hepatopancreas, a vital organ for shrimp digestion, and can result in high mortality rates, particularly during the early stages of the production cycle, typically within 30 to 35 days post-stocking.
Symptoms include hepatopancreatic atrophy and discoloration, the presence of black spots or lines caused by melanized tubules, soft shells, and an empty or nearly empty stomach or midgut.
Aranguren et al., (2020) reported a chronic phase of AHPND in shrimp from Latin America, distinct from the acute phase observed in Southeast Asia.
Vibriosis: Bacterial Diseases Caused by Vibrio spp.
Infections by Vibrio spp. are common in shrimp farming systems and can range from mild infections to mass mortality events. Vibrio spp. cause diseases such as septicemia and other bacterial conditions that negatively impact shrimp health. Symptoms include thin skin, black sores on the body, and missing appendages in shrimp.
Filamentous Bacterial Disease
Caused by the bacterium Leucothrix sp., filamentous bacterial disease is characterized by thread-like growths on the shrimp’s body and gills, affecting them from larval to adult stages. In eggs, filaments can cause respiration or hatching issues, while in gills, they can obstruct respiratory surfaces. Additionally, this disease may impair movement and molting in larvae and postlarvae, and even lead to mortality in adult shrimp.
Shell Disease
Also known as black/brown spot disease or black rot, shell disease is caused by shell-degrading bacteria, including Vibrio, Aeromonas, and Pseudomonas species. This disease affects shrimp from larval to adult stages. Symptoms include dark brown or ash-colored blisters on the appendages and molting issues. The blisters may contain a gelatinous substance, and when eroded, they produce a foul odor in the water. Affected shrimp may also become cannibalistic or die from stress.
White Feces Disease (WFD)
According to Adam et al., (2022), White Feces Disease (WFD) in Litopenaeus vannamei shrimp is caused by a combination of factors, including Vibrio spp. bacteria and the dinoflagellate Dinoflagellata. Poor pond management, unhealthy shrimp seed, and poor water quality can exacerbate the disease.
Symptoms include a pale white coloration of the intestine, floating feces, loose exoskeletons, and dark discoloration of the gills.
Loose Ball Syndrome (LBS)
Loose Ball Syndrome (LBS), also known as Zoea 2 Syndrome, primarily affects larvae in the zoea and mysis stages. The hallmark of LBS is the formation of distinctive spheres within the shrimp’s hepatopancreas (digestive organ). These “balls” eventually migrate to the intestine, causing bioluminescence, behavioral changes, and loss of appetite.
Black Spot Disease
Caused by the bacterium Vibrio anguillarum, Black Spot Disease manifests as black spots on the shrimp’s body, especially post-harvest, indicating a decline in quality. The bacterium thrives in saltwater environments with temperatures between 25°C and 32°C and becomes harmful when water quality deteriorates due to organic waste buildup.
Pale Shrimp Disease
Pale Shrimp Disease affects Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) in southern Thailand and is caused by the bacterium Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae (PDD). According to Chuchird et al., (2024), this disease is characterized by a pale body coloration, high mortality rates, and significant economic losses for producers.
White Muscle Disease (WMD)
Alolod et al., (2024) identified Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae (Pdd) as the causative agent of White Muscle Disease (WMD) in Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus). Infected shrimp exhibited characteristic clinical signs of WMD, including whitish musculature extending from the abdomen to the distal region. Dissection revealed whitish muscle resembling “cooked meat,” while histopathological analysis showed muscle fiber degeneration, necrosis, and hemocytic infiltration.
Fungal Diseases
Black Gill Disease
Though it may be caused by nutritional deficiencies or pollutants, Black Gill Disease can also result from fungal infections of the genus Fusarium. This disease darkens the gills, which are typically white. In the early stages, black spots appear on the gills, progressing to black or brown discoloration. Fungal spores can be observed on the gill lamellae of infected shrimp.
Parasitic Diseases
Hepatopancreatic Microsporidiosis (HPM)
Caused by the microsporidium Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (EHP), this disease is spreading in shrimp farms across Asian countries. Infection occurs when shrimp consume contaminated feed and feces from infected shrimp.
A common symptom is the appearance of a milky white substance in the abdominal area of the shrimp. Although it does not cause high mortality rates, it leads to smaller shrimp sizes. There is no known cure for HPM, making prevention crucial. Farmers are advised to disinfect ponds, broodstock feed, and eggs with chlorinated water.
Ciliate Infestation
Ciliate infestations are caused by protozoa such as Vorticella, Epistylis, Zoothamnium, Acineta, or Ephelota. These infestations can occur at any shrimp life stage and are characterized by a fuzzy texture on the shell and gills of juveniles and adults, as well as reddish or brown gills. Shrimp may experience appetite loss and difficulty moving when protozoa are abundant. Respiratory problems can occur when ciliates are present on the gills, especially under low dissolved oxygen conditions.
To prevent ciliate infestations, monitor dissolved oxygen levels and avoid high organic loads and turbidity in the water.
Microsporidiosis
Also known as White Ovaries or Microsporidian Infection, this disease is caused by microsporidia, protozoa visible only in infected tissues under a microscope. Juvenile and adult shrimp exhibit opaque white tissue or organs.
The parasite can replace affected tissue, causing sterility in shrimp and turning ovaries white. Although the infection rate is typically below 10%, microsporidia have a high likelihood of causing microsporidiosis.
To prevent protozoa growth, disinfect culture facilities with chlorine or iodine-based compounds. Infected shrimp should be isolated and destroyed.
Other Shrimp Diseases
Cuellar (2015) describes the following toxic and deficiency diseases in marine shrimp:
Hemocytic Enteritis (HE)
Hemocytic Enteritis (HE) is caused by the ingestion of cyanophytes, particularly Schizothrix calcicola, leading to intestinal inflammation in juvenile and preadult shrimp. Shrimp may develop some tolerance to the endotoxin responsible for HE when cultured in the presence of S. calcicola, but this resistance is lost if the environment changes.
Aflatoxin Toxicity
Aflatoxicosis is caused by consuming toxins produced by fungi, including Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, primarily through contaminated feed. It may result in reddish coloration in shrimp, reduced growth rates, and mortality.
Gas Bubble Disease
Gas Bubble Disease is caused by excessive dissolved gases (oxygen and nitrogen) in the water, forming bubbles in shrimp tissues and hindering gas exchange.
Nutritional Deficiencies or Feed Quality Issues
These conditions include:
- Soft-Shell Syndrome: Characterized by a thin, soft exoskeleton caused by nutritional deficiencies, contamination, or water quality issues.
- Blue Disease: Also known as Pigment Deficiency Syndrome, it results from a lack of astaxanthin in the diet, causing pale coloration in shrimp.
- Cramped Shrimp Syndrome: A nutritional problem exacerbated by stress, causing rigid flexion of the tail muscle.
- Vitamin C Deficiency (Avitaminosis C): Leads to “black death,” with black areas on the shrimp body and reduced stress resistance.
What Are the Methods for Detection and Diagnosis of Shrimp Diseases?
Early diagnosis of shrimp diseases is crucial to control outbreaks and minimize economic losses. Several diagnostic techniques are available, including fresh smear analysis and histopathology, both essential for accurate disease identification. In this regard, Lightner and Pantoja (2003) provide a basic manual for performing these techniques.
Fresh Smear Analysis
Fresh smear analysis is a rapid and effective method for detecting pathogens in shrimp. It involves observing shrimp under a microscope to identify visible signs of infection, such as hemorrhages, alterations in internal organs, and changes in body coloration.
This technique provides information about the shrimp’s overall condition, particularly the hepatopancreas, and can reveal internal parasitosis or epibiont infestations. Its main limitation is low sensitivity and specificity, although it can provide preliminary results to facilitate early corrective actions (Varela and Choc-Martínez, 2020).
Histopathology
Histopathology involves the microscopic examination of shrimp tissues. Staining techniques are used to visualize pathogens at the cellular level. This method is especially useful for detecting viral and parasitic infections, such as White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei.
Traditional Bacteriological Techniques
Varela and Choc-Martínez (2020) emphasize that these techniques rely on culture media and biochemical profiling tests, which are useful for studying outbreaks caused by extracellular bacteria. They enable the determination of antimicrobial sensitivity or resistance and minimum inhibitory concentration assays. However, these techniques are not effective for bacteria like Hepatobacter penaei (the cause of NHP) and Spiroplasma penaei, which are difficult to culture on artificial media.
Molecular Techniques
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
PCR is essential for detecting the genetic material of viruses and bacteria. Duplex PCR enables the simultaneous detection of two different genes, such as pirA and pirB genes associated with Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND). PCR is widely used to confirm the presence of viruses like WSSV, IHHNV, TSV, YHV, and IMNV, as well as bacteria such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus and other species linked to AHPND.
In addition to conventional PCR, variants such as RAPD, LAMP, FISH, and microarrays are available (Varela and Choc-Martínez, 2020). Lee et al., (2024) offer a comparative analysis of molecular diagnostic methods based on nucleic acid amplification for viral diseases in shrimp, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Meanwhile, Major et al., (2023) report the development of two rapid and highly specific SHERLOCKv2 assays for detecting common shrimp viruses: WSSV and TSV.
How to Prevent and Manage Diseases in Shrimp Farms?
Scientific sources describe various techniques for disease prevention and management in shrimp farms, focusing on biosecurity, water management, nutrition, and strengthening shrimp immune systems. The main strategies are outlined below:
Biosecurity
- Selection of Pathogen-Free Broodstock and Postlarvae (SPF): Starting with certified SPF broodstock and postlarvae is crucial to prevent introducing diseases into the farm. This is considered the most important preventive measure.
- Quarantine and Disinfection: Implement strict quarantine protocols for new animals and disinfect equipment and ponds using agents such as chlorine or iodine.
- Access Control: Restrict access to facilities for visitors, vehicles, and animals, and establish disinfection stations for hands and footwear.
- Monitoring: Regularly monitor shrimp health, water quality, and environmental conditions.
Water Management
- Water Quality: Maintain optimal water quality by monitoring and controlling parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, salinity, turbidity, and levels of ammonia and other toxic compounds.
- Water Exchange: Conduct water exchanges to reduce waste and pathogen buildup.
- Water Treatment: Use filtration systems to remove contaminants and pathogens from water and promote microbial diversity with probiotics. El-Saadony et al., (2022) report that certain probiotics convert organic matter into CO₂ and reduce harmful nitrogenous compounds like ammonia in aquaculture ponds.
- Waste Removal: Regularly remove organic waste, including leftover feed, shrimp feces, and dead shrimp, to prevent the proliferation of bacteria and pathogens.
Nutrition
- Balanced Diet: Provide a high-quality, nutritionally balanced diet to meet shrimp requirements and strengthen their immune systems.
- Nutritional Additives: Use additives such as zinc and selenium to enhance immune function and improve shrimp health. Zinc aids in wound healing, while selenium promotes growth.
- Avoid Overfeeding: Control feed quantities to prevent waste accumulation, which can encourage pathogenic bacterial growth.
- Phytobiotics: Plant-based extracts, known as phytobiotics, are used to boost immunity and act as antimicrobial agents in shrimp. These extracts contain compounds that interfere with bacterial cell walls and viral mRNA synthesis, offering a natural alternative to antibiotics.
- Algal Extracts: Marine algal extracts are a source of bioactive compounds with antimicrobial properties. These extracts can be administered through injection, immersion, or dietary supplements and are effective in inhibiting bacterial biofilm formation.
- Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics: El-Saadony et al. (2022) highlight that probiotics enhance gastrointestinal stability, secrete antibacterial compounds, compete with pathogens, produce antitoxins, and modulate the immune system. They also contain enzymes that break down sugars in the intestines, supplying essential fatty acids and amino acids.
Pond Management
- Pond Preparation: Ensure proper pond preparation before stocking, including cleaning, disinfection, and drying.
- Stocking Density: Control stocking density to prevent shrimp stress and the spread of diseases.
- Probiotic Use: Adding probiotics to pond water can help establish a diverse and competitive microbial system, reducing the presence of pathogenic bacteria. Probiotics can break down nitrogen and phosphorus, reduce blue-green algae and other oxygen competitors, and decompose organic waste.
- Aeration: Maintain adequate dissolved oxygen levels through artificial aeration.
Health Management
- Regular Monitoring: Observe shrimp daily for signs of disease, such as behavioral changes, lesions, loss of appetite, or abnormal coloration. Krishnan et al., (2024) developed an innovative system for managing shrimp health in aquaculture ponds. The system combines segmentation (YOLOV8), object tracking (SORT), and real-time notifications to monitor and control shrimp health.
- Disposal of Diseased Animals: Isolate and destroy diseased shrimp to prevent disease spread. Disposal should be conducted by incineration or boiling.
- Treatments: While treatments are limited and costly, antibiotics or bacteriophages may be used, though their effectiveness can vary. Seethalakshmi et al., (2021) suggested bacteriophages (phages) as an alternative for controlling bacterial infections in shrimp due to their abundance, specificity, and ability to multiply within bacteria. However, prevention remains the most effective way to combat diseases.
- Microbiome Management: Holt et al., (2021) and Xiong et al., (2024) reported that changes in shrimp gut microbiota structure correlate with major shrimp diseases, such as Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND), White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), White Feces Syndrome (WFS), Cotton-like Syndrome, and Blue Body Syndrome. Manipulating gut microbiota through probiotic (beneficial live microorganisms) or prebiotic (nutritional sources for bacteria) supplementation has shown positive effects on shrimp growth, survival, and immunity.
- Vaccines: Seethalakshmi et al. (2021) reported the development of oral vaccines using nanoparticles as DNA carriers to protect shrimp against viral and bacterial diseases.
It is important to note that shrimp diseases are complex and multifactorial, so an integrated approach combining good management practices, biosecurity, and nutrition is essential for preventing and controlling diseases on shrimp farms. Sources emphasize that prevention is more effective and economical than disease treatment.
Conclusion
Shrimp diseases such as White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV), and AHPND remain significant challenges for the shrimp farming industry. Early detection, implementation of biosecurity practices, and proper health management are crucial to mitigating the impact of these diseases. With an integrated focus on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, producers can reduce risks to shrimp health and ensure sustainable aquaculture production.
Research and development of new diagnostic technologies for detecting shrimp diseases, as well as continued education on disease management, are essential for the future of shrimp farming and global food security.
References
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