Aquaculture has surpassed capture fisheries as the world’s primary source of aquatic animal production, a crucial milestone for global food security. In this context of unprecedented growth, the sector has increasingly resorted to the translocation of species outside their natural habitats to optimize production. While this practice boosts the food supply and generates considerable economic value, it also entails significant environmental and socioeconomic risks when these species escape and establish themselves in new ecosystems.
A comprehensive study published in Reviews in Aquaculture by researchers from the University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Queen’s University Belfast, the University of Southern Denmark, Sorbonne Universités, among other academic organizations, has put figures to this phenomenon for the first time, quantifying the production, economic value, and monetary costs associated with the use of non-native species worldwide. The findings, based on data from the FAO and the InvaCost database, offer a revealing insight into the sector’s dependence on these species and the challenges this poses for sustainability.
A global overview of aquaculture with non-native species
The analysis reveals a striking reality: since 1950, aquaculture has used 560 species, of which 160 (nearly one-third) have been farmed outside their native distribution areas. This non-native production is not marginal; altogether, it amounts to:
- 571.6 million tonnes in total production.
- An economic value of 1.2 trillion U.S. dollars (USD).
Although the majority of species (400) are farmed exclusively within their native ranges , a significant portion of global production (33%) comes from non-native species, underscoring their structural importance to the current industry.
Growth trends: crustaceans and algae lead the expansion
The study not only provides a snapshot but also analyzes trends over time. One of the most notable findings is that the annual growth rate of non-native species production has surpassed that of native species since approximately 2000. This trend is especially pronounced in certain taxonomic groups.
The explosive growth of non-native crustaceans
The case of crustaceans is the most dramatic. Non-native production in this group has experienced enormous growth, with a rate of change of over 11,000% when comparing the 2000-2019 period with the previous two decades. In absolute terms, it went from just over half a million tonnes between 1980 and 1999 to nearly 58 million tonnes between 2000 and 2019.
This boom is largely driven by the farming of high-value commercial species like the whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) outside of its native Americas, especially in Asia. Today, non-native crustacean production (55%) already surpasses that of native crustaceans globally.
Algae and fish: a story of contrasts
Marine algae also show a non-native dominance. 67% of the total algae production comes from species farmed outside their natural range. This phenomenon is largely due to the massive cultivation of the Japanese kelp (Laminaria japonica) in China.
As for fish, although they dominate total aquaculture production with 940 million tonnes, the proportion of non-native production is smaller (19%, or 182 million tonnes). However, the growth of non-native fish production has nearly doubled that of native fish in recent decades. Species like the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) are key examples of this global success outside their regions of origin.
The main risk of farming non-native species is their potential escape and establishment as invasive species, capable of causing serious ecological and economic damage. The study used the InvaCost database to track reported monetary costs.
The study identified 27 non-native aquaculture species that have already generated documented costs due to their invasive nature. Focusing on the main commercial species, the findings are alarming:
- Nine of the main aquaculture species have generated reported global costs of at least 6.4 billion USD.
- Applying a conservative filter (only observed and highly reliable costs), eight species, including the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), the rainbow trout, and the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), account for 287.2 million USD in documented costs between 1960 and 2020.
These costs are mainly divided into “damage” (75.2%), such as losses in native fisheries, and “management” (24.3%), which includes expenses for control and eradication undertaken by authorities. The authors warn that these figures are, in all likelihood, a significant underestimation, as the impacts of many species have not yet been economically quantified.
Implications for sustainability and management of the aquaculture sector
This study highlights a fundamental tension: aquaculture depends on non-native species for its economic growth and to ensure food security, but this dependence increases the risks of biological invasions.
The findings call for deep reflection and concrete actions for the sector. It is imperative to strengthen biosecurity measures to minimize escapes and promote more robust risk management policies. Tools like the European Non-native Species in Aquaculture Risk Analysis Scheme (ENSARS) are examples of protocols that assess risks before allowing the introduction of a new species.
In the long term, one of the most important strategies will be the domestication and promotion of native species as viable and more environmentally sound alternatives. Although this is a long and complex process, it represents a necessary path to align the expansion of aquaculture with the goals of biodiversity conservation and long-term sustainability.
In conclusion, the growth of global aquaculture is inseparable from the use of non-native species. Recognizing its magnitude, economic value, and, above all, its associated risks and costs, is the first step toward developing a more resilient and responsible industry. Proactive management, investment in biosecurity, and a commitment to innovation in the farming of local species will be key to navigating this complex challenge.
Contact
Francisco J. Oficialdegui
Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Centre of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice
Vodňany, Czech Republic
Email: oficialdegui@frov.jcu.cz
Reference (open access)
Oficialdegui, F. J., Soto, I., Balzani, P., Cuthbert, R. N., Haubrock, P. J., Kourantidou, M., Manfrini, E., Tarkan, A. S., Kurtul, I., Macêdo, R. L., Musseau, C. L., Roy, K., & Kouba, A. (2025). Non-Native Species in Aquaculture: Burgeoning Production and Environmental Sustainability Risks. Reviews in Aquaculture, 17(3), e70037. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.70037
Editor at the digital magazine AquaHoy. He holds a degree in Aquaculture Biology from the National University of Santa (UNS) and a Master’s degree in Science and Innovation Management from the Polytechnic University of Valencia, with postgraduate diplomas in Business Innovation and Innovation Management. He possesses extensive experience in the aquaculture and fisheries sector, having led the Fisheries Innovation Unit of the National Program for Innovation in Fisheries and Aquaculture (PNIPA). He has served as a senior consultant in technology watch, an innovation project formulator and advisor, and a lecturer at UNS. He is a member of the Peruvian College of Biologists and was recognized by the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) in 2016 for his contribution to aquaculture.
