Corals are fascinating and essential creatures for marine life, forming complex underwater ecosystems known as coral reefs. These organisms not only provide a crucial habitat for an impressive diversity of marine life, but they also play a vital role in the health and stability of global marine ecosystems. These characteristics have increased the interest of aquarium enthusiasts in raising them in their tanks.
There is a wide range of coral species traded in the global coral reef market that come from natural coral reefs; however, in recent years, aquaculture has been emerging as the primary source of corals for aquariums and for the production of compounds of interest to medicine.
In this article, we want to provide you with a general overview of marine aquarium husbandry, with information on reproduction, feeding, and diseases that affect these invertebrates. However, if your focus is on coral reef restoration, check out our article on the golden principles to consider when undertaking this task.
What are Marine Corals?
Corals are marine animals that belong to the phylum Cnidaria, which also includes jellyfish and sea anemones. They are divided into two main groups: hard corals (Scleractinia) and soft corals (Alcyonacea). Hard corals are the most prominent reef builders, producing calcium carbonate skeletons that form the structure of reefs. Soft corals, on the other hand, do not significantly contribute to reef formation but are equally important for the biodiversity of the ecosystem.
Why Are Corals Animals?
Because they are sessile organisms in their adult state and live in symbiosis with microalgae, it was initially thought that corals were not animals. However, corals do feed on certain microorganisms like copepods, water fleas, or brine shrimp.
Coral Classification
In the world of diving and aquariums, corals are divided into soft and hard types; however, a classification that is not scientific but is widely used by enthusiasts is based on the color of corals, such as red, blue, among others.
Scientifically, corals are divided into two subclasses based on the number of tentacles or lines of symmetry, and currently, there are a series of genotyping tools available to identify marine corals.
Hermatypic Corals
Hermatypic corals are the most well-known because they are the reef-forming or reef-building corals. These stony corals secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton.
The most well-known species include brain corals, Acropora, Dendrogyra, and Leptopsammia.
Ahermatypic Corals
Ahermatypic corals do not build reefs and are also known as soft corals.
What are Coral Reefs?
As we explained earlier, corals form enormous colonies, and their skeletons shape and support coral reefs.
The polyps of stony marine corals are responsible for forming coral reefs that harbor a diversity of animal species (fish, shrimp, starfish, etc.) and plants (algae).
Stony corals are capable of extracting dissolved calcium from seawater and solidifying it into a hard mineral structure (calcium carbonate) that serves as their skeletal support (EPA, 2022).
If you have the opportunity to observe a coral colony, only the thin layer on the surface corresponds to the living coral.
Habitat: Where Do Marine Corals Live?
Corals are primarily found in tropical and subtropical waters, where conditions are ideal for their growth. Coral reefs develop in clear, warm waters, typically between 20°C and 30°C, with stable salinity. These habitats are usually in shallow coastal areas, although they can also be found at greater depths.
- Tropical Coral Reefs: Tropical coral reefs are located in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, especially in regions like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Mesoamerican Reef in the Caribbean. These reefs provide a habitat rich in nutrients and biodiversity.
- Deep-Sea Corals: Some corals, such as cold-water corals, live at greater depths where sunlight does not reach. These corals do not form reefs like their tropical counterparts, but they play an important role in deep-sea ecosystems.
However, reef-building corals require clear, shallow waters that allow light to penetrate for photosynthesis (EPA, 2022). Stony marine corals also need tropical or subtropical temperatures, which exist within a band 30 degrees north or 30 degrees south of the equator; this is why most coral reefs are located in tropical and subtropical waters.
Importance of Coral Reefs
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), coral reefs are one of the most valuable and biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth. It is estimated that 25% of all marine life depends on coral reefs at some point in their life cycle.
Additionally, around 500 million people worldwide depend on coral reef ecosystems for food, coastal protection, and income from tourism, fishing (EPA, 2022), and climate events (Lehmann, 2022).
It is also important to note that coral reefs are a significant source of bioactive compounds of interest to the pharmaceutical industry.
How Do Marine Corals Reproduce?
Marine corals exhibit two types of reproduction: sexual and asexual, with many coral species exhibiting both forms of reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
Coral colonies grow through the asexual reproduction of polyps. Within a coral colony, genetically identical polyps reproduce asexually, either through budding or by longitudinal or transverse division.
Budding
Budding involves separating a smaller polyp from an adult. As the new polyp grows, body parts are formed.
Division
Division creates two polyps as large as the original. “Longitudinal division” begins when a polyp widens and then splits its coelenteron. The mouth also divides, forming new tentacles.
The two “new” polyps then generate the remaining body parts and exoskeleton.
Fragmentation
Fragmentation is an important procedure for coral aquaculture. This process also occurs naturally through wave action and as “programmed fragmentation.”
Sexual Reproduction
Corals also reproduce sexually through spawning: polyps of the same species simultaneously release gametes at night. About 25% of reef-building corals form colonies composed of polyps of the same sex, while the rest are hermaphroditic.
Fertilized eggs form planulae, an early mobile form of coral polyp that, when mature, settles to form a new colony.
Sexual reproduction in aquaculture includes six steps: gametogenesis, spawning, fertilization, planktonic larval stage, settlement, and post-settlement development.
Reproduction in Aquariums
Sakai et al., (2024) investigated the relationship between key environmental factors and the timing of the first and peak spawning dates of Acropora corals over a 15-year period at the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium. The results suggest that the spawning window for each spawning season is largely influenced by water temperature, and the peak spawning timing can be adjusted in response to environmental fluctuations.
Feeding of Marine Corals
Feeding is essential for providing the carbon and micronutrients necessary to maintain the health of your marine coral.
Corals can feed on plankton and small fish, which are captured by the stinging cells of their tentacles; however, most coral species obtain the necessary nutrients from unicellular algae called zooxanthellae, which live within the coral’s tissue and give it color.
Marine corals and zooxanthellae are one of the most well-known examples of cnidarian-algae symbiosis. Through photosynthesis, the microalgae provide energy to the coral and aid in calcification.
Tagliafico et al. (2018b) fed marine corals with six different concentrations of Artemia during daytime and nighttime feedings and estimated the maximum feeding rates for Acropora millepora (4.6 ind cm−2 h−1), Hydnophora rigida (20.4 ind cm−2 h−1), and Duncanopsammia axifuga (22.8 ind polyp−1 h−1). They concluded that the concentration required to achieve the maximum feeding rates of Artemia for these commercially important coral species was above 50 ind ml−1.
In recent years, copepods have become the preferred live food for many marine species. Hazwani (2019) studied the use of the harpacticoid marine copepod Amphiascoides neglectus as live food for live corals (Protopalythoa sp. and Acropora sp.) and concluded that this copepod has the potential to be used as live food for aquarium corals.
Meanwhile, Assis et al. (2020) used the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis to feed the marine coral Pocillopora damicornis with a consortium of beneficial microorganisms (Pseudoalteromonas spp., Cobetia marina, and Halomonas taeanensis), achieving good results.
Coral Care and Maintenance in Aquariums
Caring for corals in marine aquariums requires a deep understanding of their environmental and biological needs. Aquariums housing corals must replicate the conditions of their natural habitat as faithfully as possible.
- Water Parameters: Water quality is crucial for coral health. Optimal levels of temperature, salinity, pH, and nutrient concentration must be maintained. Regular testing and water changes are essential to prevent diseases and promote growth.
- Lighting: Corals require adequate lighting for photosynthesis, which is carried out by zooxanthellae, symbiotic algae living in coral tissues. Full-spectrum LED or fluorescent lighting is ideal for providing the necessary light.
- Water Flow: Proper water flow is essential for oxygenation and waste removal. Circulation pumps and wave generators help mimic the natural water movement conditions.
Marine Coral Aquaculture
Industrial-scale aquaculture systems for corals are emerging to supply the growing marine aquarium trade, thereby preventing the overexploitation of natural coral reefs.
Marine Coral Cultivation System
Marine coral cultivation involves either extracting a portion of a coral colony or capturing floating larvae from a reef and raising them in artificial systems.
Tagliafico et al. (2018) conducted a manipulative experiment using the scleractinian coral Duncanopsammia axifuga, a polyp-reef-forming coral, to test whether the presence or absence of polyps, the orientation of the fragment’s trunk (upside down or right side up), or the heterotrophic diet (no feeding, regular Artemia, and lipid-enriched Artemia) influences polyp production, growth, survival, and overall coral health.
Tagliafico et al. (2018) concluded that D. axifuga is suitable for coral aquaculture, noting that this marine coral species produced the highest number of new polyps from fragments initially fixed without polyps and that the diet did not affect polyp production but did influence growth.
Meanwhile, Schmidt et al. (2023) designed a modular technology that can be applied to coral reef restoration. However, one of the main challenges in coral cultivation is encrusting organisms. In this regard, Neil et al. (2024) employed herbivores as a potential biocontrol method for encrustations in coral aquaculture and compared their effectiveness to manual cleaning performed by an aquarist. They concluded that microherbivores have potential applications in coral aquaculture to promote production while reducing labor costs.
Ng et al., (2024) developed a vertical coral cultivation system in water tanks, reporting that compared to conventional methods where corals are raised laterally at a single level, the new approach represents a 3.7-fold increase in coral fragment yield, resulting in a 73% energy cost savings.
Lighting and Photoperiod
Kuanui et al. (2020) investigated the effects of increasing and decreasing light intensity (0, 21, 42, 85, and 169 μmol m-2 s-1 provided by 400 W metal halide lamps or equivalent to daily light integrals (DLI) of 0, 0.95, 1.89, 3.8, and 7.6 μmol m−2 s−1) and photoperiod (24/0, 18/6, 12/12, 6/18, and 0/24 h light and dark cycle) on the growth, survival, and photosynthetic efficiency among coral species: Pocillopora damicornis, Acropora millepora, and Platygyra sinensis of different ages (6, 12, and 24 months).
According to Kuanui et al. (2020), two-year-old P. sinensis survived at all light intensity levels, whereas the survival rates of other coral species decreased when light intensity levels changed from ambient light conditions.
Furthermore, Kuanui et al. (2020) reported that the results of the photoperiod experiments showed that P. sinensis and Acropora millepora survived under all photoperiod levels.
Marine Coral Larval Settlement
A fundamental aspect of coral aquaculture is larval settlement; in this regard, Moeller et al. (2019) exposed larvae of the coral Leptastrea purpurea to five neuroactive compounds present in cnidarians and determined that dopamine favors larval metamorphosis.
In this regard, Loeslakwiboon et al., (2024) applied a custom freezing device and a “cryojig” together with vitrification and laser heating techniques to create the first cryodeposit for pelagic phase larvae of the corals Seriatopora caliendrum, Pocillopora verrucosa, Stylophora pistillata and Pocillopora acuta.
Settlement Structure
You must provide a settlement and growth structure for marine corals; therefore, it is important that the structures meet the needs of the species of interest.
Matus et al. (2021) explored the use of 3D printing on the growth and propagation of transplanted corals and concluded that the chemical composition and design of the structures were the determining factors for the success of coral propagation. Other experiences with 3D printing for coral cultivation are described by Abalawi et al. (2021).
Marine Coral Microbiome
Thatcher et al. (2022) described that the application of probiotics during production to modulate the presence of coral-associated bacteria can confer benefits associated with disease resistance, increased environmental tolerance, or improved coral nutrition.
Coral nurseries use antiseptic treatments such as Lugol’s solution and KoralMD™ baths to reduce infectious agents as part of best restoration practices; in this regard, Klinges et al., (2023) conducted a study to evaluate the effects of these compounds on the corals Acropora palmata and Orbicella faveolata and found that A. palmata treated with Lugol’s solution had significantly reduced growth rates. The impacts of the antiseptic treatment were limited, and the microbiomes were not significantly different by treatment, either immediately after application or two months later.
Diseases Affecting Marine Corals
Bleaching: Why Do Marine Corals Turn White?
Marine coral bleaching refers to the loss of color, generally culminating in decreased growth and increased mortality, and can be considered a harmful physiological response.
Corals turn white due to the loss of symbiosis with the microalgae that help feed them and give them their color.
But what triggers coral bleaching?
The most common cause of marine coral bleaching is rising water temperatures due to climate change. Douglas (2003) described the characteristics of coral bleaching as:
- External factors or triggers of discoloration, e.g., elevated temperatures;
- Symptoms, including the expulsion of algal cells and the loss of algal pigment; and
- Mechanisms, defining the symbiosis response to triggers.
Pratchett et al. (2020) studied the temperature sensitivity and bleaching susceptibility of six coral species: Homophyllia australis, Micromussa lordhowensis, Catalaphyllia jardinei, Trachyphyllia geoffroyi, Duncanopsammia axifuga, and Euphyllia glabrescens; and found that H. australis and M. lordhowensis were particularly susceptible to elevated temperatures.
How to Address the Bleaching of Your Marine Corals
One approach to addressing coral bleaching is the use of beneficial microorganisms. Rosado et al. (2018) tested microorganisms Pseudoalteromonas sp., Halomonas taeanensis, and Cobetia marina, and successfully partially mitigated coral bleaching, which can help mitigate pathogen and temperature stress.
On the other hand, marine aquarium fish also positively influence preventing or recovering marine corals from bleaching events. Chase et al. (2018) studied the influence of damselfish on marine coral health and concluded that marine coral colonies with fish exhibited higher densities of Symbiodinium, greater photosynthetic efficiency during bleaching stress, and post-bleaching recovery.
Another promising approach is proposed by Chan et al. (2023), who reported the first laboratory study showing that the thermotolerance of adult corals (Galaxea fascicularis) can be enhanced through the uptake of heat-evolved symbionts (Cladocopium proliferum) supplied exogenously, without sacrificing growth at ambient temperature.
Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD)
Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease affects more than 20 species of marine corals, and since 2014 it has caused mass mortalities in most stony coral species on the Florida Reef.
Neely et al. (2020) studied the effectiveness of the antibiotic amoxicillin for treating the disease in marine coral species Colpophyllia natans, Orbicella faveolata, and Montastraea cavernosa, achieving effective control rates of lesions caused by the disease.
Ciliate Infection
Ciliate disease poses a serious threat to corals, as infected corals will rot and die within a short period. Chu et al. (2022) used clove extract (Syzygium aromaticum) at a dose of 1500 ppm to kill ciliates within 10 minutes, without causing significant changes in the coral Goniopora columna.
Predation by the Flatworm Prosthiostomum acroporae
A common pest in Acropora coral aquaculture is the flatworm Prosthiostomum acroporae, which can cause the entire colony’s mortality at high infestation densities.
Barton et al. (2020) investigated the biological control of the flatworm P. acroporae by the cleaner fish Pseudocheilinus hexataenia or the shrimp Lysmata vittata, and concluded that these two species represent viable biological controls to reduce P. acroporae infestations.
Potential Human Health Risks of Aquarium Rearing
Although rare, there have been reports in recent years of poisoning from exposure to palytoxin generated by aquarium corals. Paige et al. (2018) reported that decorative coral species produce palytoxin, and the toxicity displays a spectrum of symptoms depending on the route of exposure.
Soft marine coral zoanthids, such as Palythoa and Zoanthus species, can contain a highly toxic and potentially lethal chemical compound known as palytoxin (Dhakal, 2022). In this regard, MacMillan et al. (2022) described the therapeutic management of a 61-year-old man who experienced keratoconjunctivitis caused by palytoxin exposure while cleaning his marine aquarium; while Croskey et al., (2024) reported the case of a young man who presented to the emergency department with unilateral eye pain, blurred vision, conjunctival injection, and an eye pH of 9, one day after direct ocular exposure to palytoxin (PTX) from a home saltwater aquarium coral.
Ecological Importance of Corals
Coral reefs are often called the “rainforests of the sea” due to their incredible biodiversity. These ecosystems provide habitats for numerous species of fish, invertebrates, and marine plants. Additionally, coral reefs offer coastal protection by reducing wave force and preventing erosion.
- Biodiversity: Coral reefs are home to around 25% of all marine species. This biodiversity not only includes fish and corals but also sponges, mollusks, and crustaceans.
- Coastal Protection: Reefs act as a natural barrier against storms and waves, protecting coastal areas and reducing the impact of extreme weather events.
Threats and Conservation of Corals
Corals face numerous threats due to human activities and environmental changes. The conservation of corals is crucial to maintaining the health of marine ecosystems.
- Climate Change: Rising water temperatures and ocean acidification affect coral health, causing coral bleaching and the loss of zooxanthellae.
- Pollution: Pollutants such as excess nutrients and chemicals damage reefs and alter ecological balances.
- Destructive Fishing: Fishing practices like the use of explosives and poisons damage reefs and associated species.
Conservation and Restoration Strategies
Conservation initiatives aim to mitigate negative impacts and restore damaged coral reefs.
- Marine Protected Areas: Establishing marine reserves and protected areas helps reduce pressures on reefs and allows for the recovery of coral populations.
- Reef Restoration: Restoration projects include coral propagation in nurseries and the reintroduction of cultured corals to damaged areas. Benkwitt et al., (2023) reported that restoring seabird populations and associated nutrient pathways can promote greater resilience of coral reefs through improved growth rates and coral recovery.
- Education and Public Awareness: Increasing awareness about the importance of corals and promoting sustainable practices are essential for the long-term protection of these ecosystems.
Conclusion
Marine coral aquaculture represents a valuable opportunity to reduce pressure on coral reefs, thereby ensuring a sustained supply of species to the growing market of enthusiasts raising these marine invertebrates.
Moreover, it is important to highlight that the term “marine coral” encompasses a wide range of species, each with its own cultivation, feeding, and breeding characteristics; in this regard, much research is still needed to understand the physical, biological, and chemical parameters required for raising these species.
Finally, the growing interest in marine coral breeding has led to an increase in incidents of poisoning, which serves as a warning sign for the ornamental industry and researchers alike, to reduce exposure to palytoxin.
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