Seahorse: Rearing, Feeding, and Reproduction

The seahorse, also known as hippocampus or sea horse, is a vertebrate animal with unique characteristics. If you are considering breeding seahorses—whether as a hobby, for commercial purposes, or research—this article will provide an overview of recent advancements in the cultivation of this marine fish. Additionally, the references listed at the end of this post will help you find more detailed information.

Seahorses (genus Hippocampus) are highly popular in the ornamental fish market due to their beauty and unique reproductive behavior, in which the male incubates the eggs. However, this marine fish has been overexploited for use in traditional medicine in China, Japan, and Korea, where it is believed to treat asthma, sexual dysfunction, depression, and other ailments. In recent years, researchers have been exploring the biotechnological potential of these marine species.

This article will delve into the characteristics, habitat, reproduction, lifespan, and essential care requirements for keeping a seahorse as a pet. We will also discuss the fascinating phenomenon of male pregnancy, a trait that distinguishes them from most vertebrates.

What is a seahorse?

Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.), known in spanish as “caballito de mar” o “caballo de mar,” belong to the Hippocampus genus within the Syngnathidae family, which also includes pipefish and sea dragons. There are more than 46 known species, each varying significantly in size, coloration, and habitat.

Characteristics of a seahorse

Hippocampi have a horse-like appearance, large eyes, a curved trunk, and a prehensile tail. Their size ranges from 2 to 35 cm, depending on the species. Short et al., (2020) reported a newly discovered pygmy sea horse species (Hippocampus nalu) in South Africa, measuring just over 2 cm and exhibiting a honey-brown coloration.

Based on laboratory research, the estimated lifespan of seahorses ranges from about one year for smaller species to approximately five years for larger species (Foster, 2004). Therefore, choosing the right seahorse species should be based on biological considerations relevant to your interests.

Despite their appearance, seahorses, or hippocampi, are commonly used names for 54 small marine fish species within the Hippocampus genus, as recorded in the World Register of Marine Species.

Seahorses are considered vulnerable due to habitat degradation and the capture of millions of specimens annually for traditional Chinese medicine and, to a lesser extent, marine aquariums. All seahorse species are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), highlighting the importance of their conservation and protection.

Key features of sea horses

• Elongated and rigid body: Unlike most fish, seahorses lack scales and instead have an external bony structure that provides protection.
• Horse-shaped head: Their distinctive morphology gives them their common name.
• Vertical swimming: They propel themselves using a dorsal fin, while their pectoral fins allow for maneuvering.
• Prehensile tail: This adaptation enables them to grasp onto corals or marine plants to prevent being carried away by currents.

How long do seahorses live?

The lifespan of a seahorse varies depending on the species and environment:

✔ In the wild: 1 to 5 years, depending on predators and habitat conditions.
✔ In aquariums: Up to 6–8 years, provided they receive proper care.

The most critical factors influencing their longevity include water quality, diet, and stress-free conditions.

How many types of seahorses exist?

Seahorse species vary in size and color. Some of the most well-known species include:

Hippocampus erectus (Lined Seahorse)

• Found along the western Atlantic coast.
• Size: Up to 19 cm.
• Colors: Yellow, brown, or mottled.
• Popular in aquariums.

Hippocampus reidi (Brazilian Seahorse)

• Inhabits tropical waters of the Americas.
• Size: 12–15 cm.
• Known for its bright yellow coloration.

Hippocampus kuda (Common Seahorse)

• Widely distributed across the Indo-Pacific.
• Size: 15–30 cm.
• Adapts well to controlled environments.

Hippocampus zosterae (Dwarf Seahorse)

• Size: 2.5–5 cm, one of the smallest species.
• Prefers shallow waters.

How to Identify Different Seahorse Species?

Seahorses belong to the Syngnathidae family, along with pipefish, pipehorses, and sea dragons. The ease of identifying sea horse species varies; some are morphologically distinct, while others share similar features with subtle differences.

If you want to learn more about their taxonomy and identification, you can refer to “A Guide to the Identification of Seahorses“ by Lourie et al (2004).

On the other hand, the iSeahorse web platform is a global initiative for seahorse science and conservation, developed by the Project Seahorse research unit at the University of British Columbia, where you can find more information. Recently, through a scientific article supported by citizen scientists, the project reported changes in the distribution of some seahorse species and variations in the reproductive behavior of others.

iSeahorse provides information on 10 out of the 17 seahorse species that are currently classified as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List (Camins et al., 2024).

Where do seahorses live?

Hippocampus, also known as seahorses, inhabit coastal waters at latitudes ranging from approximately 52°N to 45°S. Their habitats include coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and estuaries, but some species can also live on sandy or muddy bottoms (Lourie et al., 2004).

The smallest species, the pygmy seahorse (Hippocampus denise), is found in the tropical western Pacific waters, from Indonesia to Vanuatu. Meanwhile, the largest species, the big-bellied seahorse (H. abdominalis), inhabits the waters of southern Australia and New Zealand.

Threats to wild seahorses

Sea horses are threatened by overfishing, habitat loss (such as seagrass meadows, mangroves, and coral reefs), and pollution caused by human activities. Various studies have reported declines in wild populations.

Additionally, due to their slow swimming abilities, seahorses are highly vulnerable to predators. Although their monogamous behavior is often highlighted, this trait can also threaten their survival, as seahorses stop reproducing until they find a new mate.

Pollom et al. (2021) reported that 14 out of 42 sea horse species (Hippocampus spp.) are threatened with extinction, and for 17 species, there is insufficient data. They also noted that threatened species are found in most regions but are more concentrated in East and Southeast Asia and the estuaries of South Africa.

Can you keep a seahorse as a pet?

Although it is possible to keep a seahorse as a pet, these animals require specialized care.

It is important to note that rearing conditions—particularly water quality parameters—vary depending on the sea horse species. The following table presents the range of key water parameters for seahorse care.

Table 01. Recommended parameters for seahorse rearing.

Adapted from Vite et al. (2017).

What do seahorses eat?

Wild seahorses have a varied diet, primarily consisting of amphipods, decapods, and mysids. However, in captivity, their diet includes a variety of food items, mainly live organisms.

If you’re wondering, What do seahorses eat? Here are some expert recommendations:

Larvae

de Oliveira et al., (2025) reported that using the microalga Tisochrysis lutea, either alone or combined with other microalgae, significantly increased the weight and weight gain of Hippocampus reidi larvae by day 15, compared to treatments without microalgae.

Juveniles

Captive juvenile seahorses are primarily fed enriched Artemia, frozen copepods, frozen mysids, wild zooplankton, and enriched rotifers. However, the choice of live food depends on the seahorse species, as smaller species require live food suited to their mouth size.

Juvenile sea horses require a diverse range of live food to provide the necessary nutrition. Typically, they are fed 2 to 7 times per day with a combination of newly hatched Artemia, enriched Artemia nauplii, rotifers, copepods, and mysid larvae.

Several studies recommend feeding juvenile seahorses with zooplankton, Artemia, and rotifers enriched with commercial emulsions. The price of these products varies depending on whether you buy them at your favorite aquarium store or online.

Adults

Adult seahorses are fed frozen mysids, enriched live and frozen Artemia, shrimp, amphipods, live and frozen Acetes, wild decapods, insects, and fish larvae. It is important to note that cultivating large amounts of live food can be challenging, time-consuming, and costly, and may also be associated with disease risks.

How do seahorses reproduce?

Seahorses, pipefish, and sea dragons are among the few vertebrates that exhibit male pregnancy (Dudley et al., 2022).

Sexual maturity in male seahorses is recognized by the presence of a fully developed brood pouch, except in pygmy seahorses (Lourie et al., 2004). Seahorses reach maturity between four months and one year, depending on the species. Their size at first maturity varies among species.

All studied seahorse species in the wild appear to be monogamous within a reproductive cycle, with the male accepting eggs from only one female. Many species also form pairs throughout the entire breeding season.

Depending on the species, seahorses reach gonadal maturity between 7 and 10 months. Zhang et al., (2023b) described the process of gonadal development in seahorses, particularly in the pot-bellied seahorse (Hippocampus abdominalis), which reproduces year-round under captive breeding conditions.

After courtship, the female uses an ovipositor (egg conduit) to deposit her eggs into a brood pouch located at the base of the male’s tail, where they are then fertilized. The gestation period in males lasts between 9 and 30 days, depending on the species, while labor can last from one to three days.

Males release an average of 100–300 larvae, but this can vary from as few as five in smaller species to approximately 2,000 in H. ingens.

Australian researchers led by Zoe et al (2020) determined that male sea horses transport nutrients, including fats, to the developing embryos during pregnancy. The embryos utilize these energy-rich fats for their growth and development. Meanwhile, Skalkos et al., (2024) were the first to demonstrate paternal protein transport during pregnancy in seahorses (Hippocampus abdominalis).

A male seahorse can carry up to 1,000 embryos (Dudley & Whittington, 2021).

Seahorse diseases

Like many fish species, seahorses do not respond well to high stocking densities. Researchers have reported that seahorses can be affected by cestodes, microsporidians, fungi, ciliates, trematodes, and marine leeches.

When a diseased fish is detected, it should be immediately removed from the tank and transferred to the medication area.

A particular disease of interest in seahorses is vibriosis and mycobacteriosis. Vibriosis can be treated with antibiotics. Live feed can be a source of vibriosis, and the decapsulation of Artemia cysts and/or antibiotic treatment of food have been used to reduce this infection route.

Another major health issue for seahorses in aquaculture is the “bubble disease.” This typically manifests as gas entrapment in the brood pouch and overinflation of the swim bladder. The recommended treatment is bubble aspiration and antibiotic use.

The PIECEMO manual (spanish), which you can find in the references, provides more information on treatments for diseases caused by ectoparasites, endoparasites, as well as exophthalmia, internal gas bubbles, pouch emphysema, skin flaking, and snout rot.

Recently, Chen et al (2022) reported the isolation of a virus strain named Seahorse Nervous Necrosis Virus (SHNNV) from farmed “big-belly seahorses” (Hippocampus abdominalis) in Xiamen, China.

Hydrogen peroxide is widely used in aquaculture to prevent and control fish mortality, frequently associated with fungal, bacterial, and parasitic diseases. In this regard, Santos et al (2023) recommend that hydrogen peroxide has the potential to be used as an immersion treatment for H. reidi seahorses at a concentration of 4.4 mM for 60 minutes.

Seahorse trade

Seahorses are primarily traded in dried form for use in traditional medicine, particularly in Traditional Chinese Medicine, and to a lesser extent, they are sold as ornamental fish. On the other hand, Feng et al., (2024) provide essential information on the fatty acid and amino acid composition of seahorses (Hippocampus erectus, Hippocampus abdominalis, H. trimaculatus, Hippocampus kelloggi), supporting their potential as valuable dietary supplements and highlighting the need for further research on seasonal and environmental variations affecting their biochemical composition.

Cohen et al. (2017) report that five seahorse species (H. trimaculatus, H. spinosissimus, H. kelloggi, H. kuda, and H. algiricus) account for more than 90% of the global seahorse trade, with most being traded as dried specimens. Regarding this, Louw y Bürgener (2020) report that Hong Kong was the largest global importer of dried seahorses between 2008 and 2018, while Thailand was the main exporter (80%), followed by Guinea (6%), Mexico (4%), Malaysia (2%), and Indonesia (2%).

The value of dried seahorses was US$700/kg in 2018; however, price drops as low as US$50/kg have also been recorded.

H. kuda and H. reidi are well represented in the marine aquarium industry and have been the focus of research, primarily in the field of aquaculture (Cohen et al., 2017).

Although not significantly traded, various researchers report that H. erectus, H. abdominalis, H. guttulatus, and H. hippocampus have potential for the aquarium industry and are being extensively studied.

Seahorses, at the retail level and depending on the species, are sold at prices ranging from US$60 to US$240 per individual.

Additionally, it is important to highlight that approximately 98% of the seahorses traded in the global market come from countries that have imposed bans, meaning that the actual trade volume could be higher (Foster et al, 2019).

Seahorse aquaculture

Although marine ornamental species aquaculture is an alternative to wild capture, challenges remain, especially considering the characteristics of the target species. Freshwater ornamental fish aquaculture has made significant progress; however, marine ornamental fish aquaculture remains underdeveloped.

In this regard, a scientific publication by Vite-García et al (2017) argues that current knowledge on seahorse farming lays the technological foundation for planning and implementing aquaculture efforts for research, conservation, restocking, or commercial purposes. However, Koning y Hoeksema (2021) conclude that there is still a need to improve breeding protocols, particularly in terms of nutrition and microbiological aspects.

Seahorse breeding

Seahorse breeding can reduce pressure on wild populations, ensuring that captive-bred animals live longer while enabling the sale and exchange of captive-bred juveniles (Encomendero et al., 2011).

In the past decade, seahorse breeding has advanced significantly, with the successful completion of the life cycle of several species. Nevertheless, the main bottleneck remains the difficulty of rearing these marine organisms in their early life stages due to the need for a variety of live foods and their vulnerability to diseases.

China is the leading country in scientific publications related to seahorse aquaculture, followed by Spain, the U.S., and Australia. Studies related to morphology are led by Belgium, disease publications by Spain, and pharmacology studies by India (Cohen et al., 2017).

Koldewey y Martin (2010) report the aquaculture of various seahorse species (H. abdominalis, H. barbouri, H. kuda, H. comes, H. erectus, H. guttulatus, H. ingens, H. patagonicus, H. reidi, H. subelongatus, H. trimaculatus, and H. whitei), highlighting key culture parameters such as water flow, temperature, salinity, pH, and photoperiod.

In this regard, PIECEMO published a manual for the culture of the seahorse Hippocampus erectus, also known as the lined, spotted, or banded seahorse. The organization provides details on the capture and transport of broodstock, culture systems, feeding, and the rearing of fry, juveniles, and pre-adults.

Encomendero et al. (2011) worked with H. ingens, finding an absolute fecundity of 103 offspring per birth, relative fecundity of six offspring per gram of paternal weight, and juvenile growth rates averaging 0.4 mm per day.

Cohen et al. (2017) highlight that most studies and commercial aquaculture practices for seahorses rely on intensive monoculture systems, where animals are kept in aquariums or tanks under controlled water parameters and are entirely dependent on exogenous feed.

However, Zhang et al., (2023) explored the culture of the “striped seahorse” (H. erectus) in shrimp ponds and recommend seahorse farming in ponds smaller than 0.3 ha, concluding that a 1,000 m² pond can support up to 7,000 seahorses.

A system that exclusively relies on exogenous feeding can be inefficient for species that are difficult to feed since seahorses lack a stomach, which may reduce their ability to digest artificial diets.

Carvalho et al. (2019) investigated the viability of H. reidi aquaculture in an integrated multi-trophic system composed of the oyster Crassostrea brasiliana and the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. They demonstrated the technical feasibility of this practice, highlighting its potential for good economic returns. Meanwhile, the “Hippocampus reidi Production System Research Network” in Brazil has made significant progress in seahorse farming.

Planas (2022) evaluated the effect of artificial holdfast structures on the welfare of juvenile Hippocampus reidi kept in culture conditions for 30 days, indicating that natural habitat complexity does not affect juvenile viability but provides better shelter and quick access to prey.

If you are interested in H. erectus (lined, spotted, or banded seahorse), H. ingens (Pacific or giant seahorse), H. reidi (long-snouted seahorse), and H. zosterae (dwarf seahorse), you can review the CONABIO publication, which includes technical data sheets compiling life history parameters, reproductive biology, habitat, and feeding information for each species.

Seahorse transportation

Scientists from UNESP – Universidade Estadual Paulista, the Marine Research Institute (CSIC) in Spain, and the University of Aveiro (Portugal) conducted two experiments using Hippocampus reidi as a model species to optimize packaging methods for live transport. They determined that three times more live seahorses could be transported compared to current practices, without negative impacts on welfare or increased transportation costs.

Knowledge gaps in seahorse aquaculture

If you are a researcher or are entering this field, you should know that Cohen et al. (2017) identified five main knowledge gaps and research opportunities to advance the state of seahorse research:

1. Maximizing seahorses’ potential as a “flagship species” for marine conservation.
2. Reducing knowledge gaps about the most traded seahorse species.
3. Understanding the potential impact of emerging pollutants and climate change on seahorses.
4. Developing low-cost, sustainable seahorse aquaculture.
5. Improving traceability in the seahorse trade to enhance marine conservation.

Some fun facts about seahorses

Mark Tupper (2021) compiled a list of interesting facts about seahorses, including:

1. They are not expert swimmers.
2. They are masters of camouflage.
3. They ambush their prey.
4. They do not have a stomach.
5. They cannot move their eyes independently.

On the other hand, if you are interested in monitoring natural seahorse populations, Luzzatto y Cussac (2023) developed an efficient and non-invasive method to measure and identify individual seahorses (Hippocampus patagonicus) in their natural habitat using photographs.

Conclusion

Without a doubt, Hippocampus, also known as the seahorse or sea horse, has great potential for industry development, whether for aquarium trade or use in traditional Chinese medicine. However, this development should be achieved through aquaculture techniques to ensure sustainable resource sources.

There are still challenges in seahorse breeding, especially in the early life stages, which require further research. However, significant progress has been made in understanding certain seahorse species.

It is important to note that different seahorse species are endangered. Therefore, if you decide to buy and keep this species in your aquarium, make sure it comes from captive-bred populations.

Finally, if you enjoyed this article, don’t forget to share it with your colleagues and friends. This will help us continue publishing more content about various aquatic species.

References

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