Global Eel consumption: 99% originates from threatened species

A groundbreaking study, for the first time integrating DNA analysis of commercial products with global production and trade statistics, has revealed a concerning reality for the aquaculture sector and conservation efforts: over 99% of eels consumed worldwide belong to threatened species. The research, published in the journal Scientific Reports and analyzing products across 11 countries, not only identifies which species reach our plates but also pinpoints the main consumers, offering an essential overview for the sustainable management of this valuable resource.

Freshwater eel (Anguilla spp.) is one of the most prized fish globally, yet its complex life cycle presents a unique challenge: its reproduction in captivity is not yet commercially viable. This means that all eel aquaculture, which supplies the majority of consumption, depends exclusively on the capture of wild juveniles, known as “glass eels.” This dependency, coupled with strong international demand, has placed most of its populations in a critical situation.

Key findings

• Over 99% of eels consumed globally belong to three species listed as threatened by the IUCN: the American eel, the Japanese eel, and the European eel.
• Eel consumption is overwhelmingly concentrated in East Asia. Countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea lead global demand, both in total volume and per capita.
• Despite the reputation of the Japanese eel, global analysis indicates that the American eel is the most abundant species on the international market, followed by the Japanese and European eels.
• There are significant discrepancies in the aquaculture production data reported by China to the FAO and other organizations, creating considerable uncertainty about the true volume of the global market, but not altering the main conclusion about the species consumed.
• All eel aquaculture worldwide depends on the capture of wild juveniles (glass eels), which exerts direct and constant pressure on natural populations.

How was it discovered which Eels we eat?

To answer the questions of which species are consumed and in which countries, researchers from Chuo University and National Taiwan University implemented an integrated approach. First, they collected 282 samples of eel products (such as the popular kabayaki, restaurant dishes, and supermarket products) in 26 cities across 11 countries and regions, including key markets in Asia, Europe, North America, and Oceania.

Using the DNA barcoding technique, they successfully identified the exact species in each product, overcoming the difficulty of recognizing them once processed. In parallel, they analyzed production data (fisheries and aquaculture) from the FAO and import/export statistics from the UN to calculate the domestic supply volume in each country, an approximation of actual consumption. By weighting the DNA-derived species composition with the market volume of each country, they were able to estimate the composition on a global scale.

Three threatened species dominate the market

The genetic analysis of 279 successfully identified samples primarily detected four species. The most conclusive finding is that three of these, all included on the IUCN Red List, constitute nearly the entirety of consumption:

• American eel (A. rostrata): It was the most detected species in the samples (54.1%) and, when weighted by market volumes, is established as the most consumed worldwide.
• Japanese eel (A. japonica): It accounted for 44.1% of the samples, making it the second most significant in global consumption.
• European eel (A. anguilla): Although it only constituted 1.4% of the samples, its presence was confirmed in the markets of China and Japan. This species is listed as “Critically Endangered.”
• Indonesian shortfin eel (A. bicolor): Its presence was minimal, with only one product detected (0.4%).

This predominance of threatened species underscores the unsustainability of the current consumption pattern and the urgent need for effective management measures.

East Asia: The epicenter of global eel consumption

The study confirms that although eels are traded globally, consumption is overwhelmingly concentrated in East Asia. When analyzing domestic supply, the countries with the highest consumption volumes are China, Japan, and South Korea. In terms of per capita consumption, the leadership is even clearer:

• Japan (436.2 g/person), Hong Kong (427.7 g), and South Korea (366.7 g) show a cultural preference and a demand far superior to the world average, which is estimated to be between 15 and 36 g per person, depending on the data source used.

The data challenge: The great uncertainty of chinese production

A critical point the study highlights is the enormous discrepancy in China’s aquaculture production figures. The data China reports to the FAO is up to 2.4 times higher than what it reports to the “Informal Consultation,” an East Asian regional cooperation group. In 2021, China’s export volume even exceeded its production declared to the latter body.

This difference, amounting to some 160,000 tons, creates great uncertainty about the actual size of the global market. However, the authors note that even with this variability, the main conclusion remains unchanged: the American eel, followed by the Japanese and European eels, are the most consumed worldwide. For effective management, improving the accuracy of these production statistics is essential.

Implications for conservation and the aquaculture sector

The findings of this research have profound implications. The strong demand in Asia has caused a shift in fishing pressure to other species and regions, as is the case with the American eel. American eel products caught in North America are sent to China for fattening and processing, and then re-exported to markets around the world, including the United States and Canada, generating a significant carbon footprint.

The lack of species labeling on most products (only 9% of the samples indicated it) prevents consumers from making informed decisions, making it nearly impossible to choose a “sustainable” option.

In short, this pioneering study demonstrates that the global eel market depends on overexploited and threatened populations. For the aquaculture sector and fisheries managers, the message is clear: greater transparency in supply chains, more reliable production data, and strengthened international cooperation are urgently required to prevent this valuable resource from disappearing from our ecosystems and, eventually, from our markets.

Contact
Kenzo Kaifu
Chuo University
1-4-1 Otsuka, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 112-8631, Japan
Email: kkaifu001t@g.chuo-u.ac.jp

Reference (open access)
Kaifu, K., Han, YS. & Shiraishi, H. Global consumption of threatened freshwater eels revealed by integrating DNA barcoding, production data, and trade statistics. Sci Rep 15, 29968 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-15458-y

Milthon Lujan

Editor at the digital magazine AquaHoy. He holds a degree in Aquaculture Biology from the National University of Santa (UNS) and a Master’s degree in Science and Innovation Management from the Polytechnic University of Valencia, with postgraduate diplomas in Business Innovation and Innovation Management. He possesses extensive experience in the aquaculture and fisheries sector, having led the Fisheries Innovation Unit of the National Program for Innovation in Fisheries and Aquaculture (PNIPA). He has served as a senior consultant in technology watch, an innovation project formulator and advisor, and a lecturer at UNS. He is a member of the Peruvian College of Biologists and was recognized by the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) in 2016 for his contribution to aquaculture.